The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined

  Shergill, S. S., Bays, P. M., Frith, C. D., & Wolpert, D. M. 2003. Two eyes for an eye: the neuroscience of force escalation. Science, 301, 187.

  Sherif, M. 1966. Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

  Shermer, M. 2004. The science of good and evil: Why people cheat, gossip, care, share, and follow the golden rule. New York: Holt.

  Shevelow, K. 2008. For the love of animals. New York: Holt.

  Shotland, R. L., & Straw, M. K. 1976. Bystander response to an assault: When a man attacks a woman. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 34, 990–99.

  Shultz, G. P. 2009. A world free of nuclear weapons. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 62, 81–82.

  Shultz, G. P., Perry, W. J., Kissinger, H. A., & Nunn, S. 2007. A world free of nuclear weapons. Wall Street Journal (January 4).

  Shweder, R. A., Much, N. C., Mahapatra, M., & Park, L. 1997. The “big three” of morality (autonomy, community, and divinity) and the “big three” explanations of suffering. In A. Brandt & P. Rozin, eds., Morality and health. New York: Routledge.

  Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. 1999. Social dominance. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

  Sidanius, J., & Veniegas, R. C. 2000. Gender and race discrimination: The interactive nature of disadvantage. In S. Oskamp, ed., Reducing prejudice and discrimination: The Claremont symposium on applied social psychology. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.

  Siena Research Institute. 2010. American presidents: Greatest and worst. Siena’s 5th presidential expert poll. Loudonville, N.Y.: Siena College. http://www.siena.edu/uploadedfiles/home/parents_and_community/community_page/sri/independent_research/Presidents%20Release_2010_final.pdf.

  Sigmund, K. 1997. Games evolution plays. In A. Schmitt, K. Atzwanger, K. Grammer, & K. Schäfer, eds., Aspects of human ethology. New York: Plenum.

  Simons, O. 2001. Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

  Simonton, D. K. 1990. Psychology, science, and history: An introduction to historiometry. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

  Simonton, D. K. 2006. Presidential IQ, openness, intellectual brilliance, and leadership: Estimates and correlations for 42 U.S. chief executives. Political Psychology, 27, 511–26.

  Singer, D. J., & Small, M. 1972. The wages of war 1816–1965: A statistical handbook. New York: Wiley.

  Singer, P. 1975/2009. Animal liberation: The definitive classic of the animal movement, updated ed. New York: HarperCollins.

  Singer, P. 1981/2011. The expanding circle: Ethics and sociobiology. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

  Singer, P. 1994. Rethinking life and death: The collapse of our traditional ethics. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

  Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J. P., Stephan, K. E., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. 2006. Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature, 439, 466–69.

  Skenazy, L. 2009. Free-range kids: Giving our children the freedom we had without going nuts with worry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

  Skogan, W. 1989. Social change and the future of violent crime. In T. R. Gurr, ed., Violence in America, vol. 1 : The history of crime. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage.

  Slovic, P. 1987. Perception of risk. Science, 236, 280–85.

  Slovic, P. 2007. “If I look at the mass I will never act”: Psychic numbing and genocide. Judgment & Decision Making, 2, 79–95.

  Slovic, P., Fischof, B., & Lichtenstein, S. 1982. Facts versus fears: Understanding perceived risk. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky, eds., Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., Dinwiddie, S. H., Madden, P.A.F., Bucholz, K. K., Dunne, M. P., Statham, D. J., & Martin, N. G. 1997. Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: A study of 2,682 adult twin pairs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 266–79.

  Smith, A. 1759/1976. The theory of moral sentiments. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics.

  Smith, A. 1776/2009. The wealth of nations. New York: Classic House Books.

  Smith, H. 1952. Man and his gods. Boston: Little, Brown.

  Sokal, A. D. 2000. The Sokal hoax: The sham that shook the academy. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

  Solomon, R. L. 1980. The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation. American Psychologist, 35, 69 1–71 2 .

  Solzhenitsyn, A. 1973/1991. The Gulag archipelago. New York: HarperPerennial.

  Sommers, C. H. 1994. Who stole feminism ? New York: Simon & Schuster.

  Sorokin, P. 1957. Social and cultural dynamics: A study of change in major systems of art, truth, ethics, law, and social relationships. Boston: Extending Horizons.

  Sowell, T. 1980. Knowledge and decisions. New York: Basic Books.

  Sowell, T. 1987. A conflict of visions: Ideological origins of political struggles. New York: Quill.

  Sowell, T. 1994. Race and culture: A world view. New York: Basic Books.

  Sowell, T. 1996. Migrations and cultures: A world view. New York: Basic Books.

  Sowell, T. 1998. Conquests and cultures: An international history. New York: Basic Books.

  Sowell, T. 2004. Affirmative action around the world: An empirical study. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

  Sowell, T. 2005. Are Jews generic? In T. Sowell, Black rednecks and white liberals. New York: Encounter.

  Sowell, T. 2010. Intellectuals and society. New York: Basic Books.

  Spagat, M., Mack, A., Cooper, T., & Kreutz, J. 2009. Estimating war deaths: An arena of contestation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53, 934–50.

  Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. 1973. A short version of the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 219–20.

  Spencer, A. T., & Croucher, S. M. 2008. Basque nationalism and the spiral of silence: An analysis of public perceptions of ETA in Spain and France. International Communication Gazette, 70, 137–53.

  Spencer, C. 2000. Vegetarianism: A history. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.

  Sperber, D., ed. 2000. Metarepresentations: A multidisciplinary perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Spierenburg, P. 2006. Democracy came too early: A tentative explanation for the problem of American homicide. American Historical Review, 111, 104–14.

  Spierenburg, P. 2008. A history of murder: Personal violence in Europe from the Middle Ages to the present. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity.

  Spiller, R. J. 1988. S.L.A. Marshall and the ratio of fire. RUSI Journal, 133, 63–71.

  Spitzer, S. 1975. Punishment and social organization: A study of Durkheim’s theory of penal evolution. Law & Society Review, 9, 613–38.

  Stanton, S. J., Beehner, J. C., Saini, E. K., Kuhn, C. M., & LaBar, K. S. 2009. Dominance, politics, and physiology: Voters’ testosterone changes on the night of the 2008 United States presidential election. PLoS ONE, 4, e7543.

  Statistics Canada. 2008. Table 1: Homicide rates by province/territory, 1961 to 2007. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2008009/article/t/5800411-eng.htm.

  Statistics Canada. 2010. Homicide offences, number and rate, by province and territory. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/legal12a-eng.htm.

  Steckel, R. H., & Wallis, J. 2009. Stones, bones, and states: A new approach to the Neolithic Revolution. http://www.nber.org/~confer/2007/daes07/steckel.pdf.

  Steenhuis, A. 1984. We have not learnt to control nature and ourselves enough: An interview with Norbert Elias. De Groene Amsterdammer (May 16), 10–11.

  Steigmann-Gall, R. 2003. The Holy Reich: Nazi conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Steinbeck, J. 1962/1997. Travels with Charley and later novels, 1947–1962. New York: Penguin.

  Stephan, W. G., & Finlay, K. 1999. The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 729–43.

  Stevens, W. O. 1940. Pistols at ten paces: The
story of the code of honor in America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

  Stevenson, D. 2004. Cataclysm: The first world war as political tragedy. New York: Basic Books.

  Stillwell, A. M., & Baumeister, R. F. 1997. The construction of victim and perpetrator memories: Accuracy and distortion in role-based accounts. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1157–72.

  Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 2009. SIPRI yearbook 2009: Armaments, disarmaments, and international security. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Stone, V. E., Baron-Cohen, S., & Knight, R. T. 1998. Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 640–56.

  Strange, J. J. 2002. How fictional tales wag real-world beliefs: Models and mechanisms of narrative influence. In M. C. Green, J. J. Strange, & T. C. Brock, eds., Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations. New York: Routledge.

  Straus, M. A. 1977/1978. Wife-beating: How common, and why? Victimology, 2, 443–58.

  Straus, M. A. 1995. Trends in cultural norms and rates of partner violence: An update to 1992. In S. M. Stith & M. A. Straus, eds., Understanding partner violence: Prevalence, causes, consequences, and solutions. Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations.

  Straus, M. A. 1999. Corporal punishment by American parents: National data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, in relation to child, and family characteristics. Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review, 2, 55–70.

  Straus, M. A. 2001. Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children, rev. ed. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.

  Straus, M. A. 2005. Children should never, ever be spanked no matter what the circumstances. In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles & M. M. Cavanaugh eds., Current controversies about family violence. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.

  Straus, M. A. 2009. Differences in corporal punishment by parents in 32 nations and its relation to national differences in IQ. Paper presented at the 14th International Conference on Violence, Abuse, and Trauma. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/Cp98D%20CP%20%20IQ%20world-wide.pdf.

  Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. 1986. Societal change and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 48, 465–80.

  Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. 1988. How violent are American families? Estimates from the National Family Violence Resurvey and other studies. In G. T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus, eds., Family abuse and its consequences : New directions in research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.

  Straus, M. A., & Kantor, G. K. 1994. Change in spouse assault rates from 1975 to 1992: A comparison of three national surveys in the United States. Paper presented at the 13th World Congress of Sociology. http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/V55.pdf.

  Straus, M. A., & Kantor, G. K. 1995. Trends in physical abuse by parents from 1975 to 1992: A comparison of three national surveys. Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology.

  Straus, M. A., Kantor, G. K., & Moore, D. W. 1997. Changes in cultural norms approving marital violence from 1968 to 1994. In G. K. Kantor & J. L. Jasinski, eds., Out of the darkness: Contemporary perspectives on family violence. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.

  Stuart, T. 2006. The bloodless revolution: A cultural history of vegetarianism from 1600 to modern times. New York: Norton.

  Suedfeld, P., & Coren, S. 1992. Cognitive correlates of conceptual complexity. Personality & Individual Differences, 13, 1193–99.

  Suedfeld, P., & Tetlock, P. E. 1977. Integrative complexity of communications in international crises. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 21, 169–84.

  Suedfeld, P., Tetlock, P. E., & Ramirez, C. 1977. War, peace, and integrative complexity: UN speeches on the Middle East problem 1947–1976. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 21, 427–42.

  Suk, J. 2009. At home in the law: How the domestic violence revolution is transforming privacy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

  Symons, D. 1979. The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Taagepera, R., & Colby, B. N. 1979. Growth of western civilization: Epicyclical or exponential? American Anthropologist, 81, 907–12.

  Tajfel, H. 1981. Human groups and social categories. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Takahashi, H., Kato, M., Matsuura, M., Mobbs, D., Suhara, T., & Okubo, Y. 2009. When your gain is my pain and your pain is my gain: Neural correlates of envy and schadenfreude. Science, 323, 93 7–39 .

  Talmy, L. 2000. Force dynamics in language and cognition. Toward a cognitive semantics 1 : Concept structuring systems. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

  Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. 2004. High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 272–324.

  Tannenwald, N. 2005a. Ideas and explanation: Advancing the theoretical agenda. Journal of Cold War Studies, 7, 13–42.

  Tannenwald, N. 2005b. Stigmatizing the bomb: Origins of the nuclear taboo. International Security, 29, 5–49 .

  Tannenwald, N., & Wohlforth, W. C. 2005. Introduction: The role of ideas and the end of the Cold War. Journal of Cold War Studies, 7, 3–12.

  Tatar, M. 2003. The hard facts of the Grimm’s fairy tales, 2nd rev. ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

  Tavris, C., & Aronson, E. 2007. Mistakes were made (but not by me): Why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions, and hurtful acts. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt.

  Taylor, S., & Johnson, K. C. 2008. Until proven innocent: Political correctness and the shameful injustices of the Duke lacrosse rape case. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

  Taylor, S. E. 1989. Positive illusions : Creative self-deception and the healthy mind. New York: Basic Books.

  Tetlock, P. E. 1985. Integrative complexity of American and Soviet foreign policy rhetoric: A timeseries analysis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 49, 1565–85.

  Tetlock, P. E. 1994. Political psychology or politicized psychology: Is the road to scientific hell paved with good moral intentions? Political Psychology, 15, 509–29.

  Tetlock, P. E. 1999. Coping with tradeoffs: Psychological constraints and political implications. In A. Lupia, M. McCubbins, & S. Popkin, eds., Political reasoning and choice. Berkeley: University of California Press.

  Tetlock, P. E. 2003. Thinking the unthinkable: Sacred values and taboo cognitions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 320–24.

  Tetlock, P. E., Kristel, O. V., Elson, B., Green, M. C., & Lerner, J. 2000. The psychology of the unthinkable : Taboo tradeoffs, forbidden base rates, and heretical counterfactuals. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 78, 853–70.

  Tetlock, P. E., Peterson, R. S., & Lerner, J. S. 1996. Revising the value pluralism model: Incorporating social content and context postulates. In C. Seligman, J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna, eds., The psychology of values: The Ontario symposium, vol. 8. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.

  Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. 2008. Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

  Thayer, B. A. 2004. Darwin and international relations: On the evolutionary origins of war and ethnic conflict . Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.

  Theisen, O. M. 2008. Blood and soil? Resource scarcity and internal armed conflict revisited. Journal of Peace Research, 45, 801–18.

  Theweleit, M. 1977/1987. Male fantasies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

  Thomas, D. C. 2005. Human rights ideas, the demise of communism, and the end of the Cold War. Journal of Cold War Studies, 7, 110–41.

  Thompson, P. M., Cannon, T. D., Narr, K. L., van Erp, T.G.M., Poutanen, V.-P., Huttunen, M., Lönnqvist, J., Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C.-G., Kaprio, J., Khaledy, M., Dail, R., Zoumalan, C. I., & Toga, A. W. 2001. Genetic influences on brain structure. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 1–6.

  Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. 2000. A natural history of rape: Biological bases of sexual coe
rcion. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

  Thorpe, I.J.N. 2003. Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of war. World Archaeology, 35, 145–65.

  Thurston, R. 2007. Witch hunts: A history of the witch persecutions in Europe and North America. New York: Longman.

  Thyne, C. L. 2006. ABC’s, 123’s, and the golden rule: The pacifying effect of education on civil war, 1980–1999. International Studies Quarterly, 50, 733–54.

  Tiger, L. 2006. Torturers, horror films, and the aesthetic legacy of predation. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 29, 244–45.

  Tilly, C. 1985. War making and state making as organized crime. In P. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, & T. Skocpol, eds., Bringing the state back in. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Tishkoff, S. A., Reed, F. A., Ranciaro, A., Voight, B. F., Babbitt, C. C., Silverman, J. S., Powell, K., Mortensen, H. M., Hirbo, J. B., Osman, M., Ibrahim, M., Omar, S. A., Lema, G., Nyambo, T. B., Ghori, J., Bumptstead, S., Pritchard, J. K., Wray, G. A., & Deloukas, P. 2006. Convergent adaptation of human lactase persistence in Africa and Europe. Nature Genetics, 39, 31–40.

  Titchener, E. B. 1909/1973. Lectures on the experimental psychology of the thought-processes. New York: Arno Press.

  Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 1988. The evolution of war and its cognitive foundations. Institute for Evolutionary Studies Technical Report.

  Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 1990a. On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: The role of genetics and adaptation. Journal of Personality, 58, 17–67.

  Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 1990b. The past explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethology & sociobiology, 11, 375–424.

  Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 1992. Psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby, eds., The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 2010. Groups in mind: The coalitional roots of war and morality. In H. Høgh-Oleson, ed., Human morality and sociality: Evolutionary and comparative perspectives. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.