A Thousand Pieces of Gold

  Following the frontier guards’ rebellion one year after the death of the First Emperor, aristocrats from the old ruling Tian family resurfaced. The nobleman Rong rose and declared Qi to be a new and independent kingdom. He named himself as Prime Minister and his nephew Shi as King. Wishing to remain neutral, Rong did not send troops to assist Xiang Yu in the battle of Julu. One of his junior officers, Commander Dou, disagreed with Rong’s policy and brought his own troops to Xiang Yu.

  Subsequently, Commander Dou accompanied Xiang Yu in storming the Hangu Pass. Wishing to reward his friend, Xiang Yu divided Qi into three parcels. He bypassed Rong, who had ruled Qi for four years and held all the power in that area. Of the three men he named to govern the three sections of Qi, the first was his friend Commander Dou, the second was Rong’s nephew Shi, and the third was a grandson of the last king of Qi, who had been starved to death.

  Not only was Rong left out in the cold, he was expected to give up his army and subordinate himself to his rebellious former army officer, his young nephew, and the grandson of a cowardly king whom he despised. It was an impossible situation for Rong and he revolted.

  He began by refusing entry to his former junior officer Commander Dou. The latter complained to Xiang Yu. Rong heard of this and responded by killing the two other newly nominated kings of Qi. He re-united the three parcels and declared himself the only king of Qi. Far from kowtowing to Xiang Yu, Rong began openly recruiting others to join him in a revolution against him.

  The first to respond was Peng Yue, a minor warlord and guerrilla fighter with a band of ten thousand men who was itching to prove his mettle. Rong immediately made him a general and sent him the appropriate seal.

  The second to join the “anti-Xiang Yu forces” was Scholar-General Chen Yu from Zhao. Chen Yu was the one who had written the famous letter that successfully prompted Treasurer Zhang Han to surrender to Xiang Yu after the battle of Julu. Chen Yu held a grudge against Xiang Yu because the latter did not make him a king and gave him only three small counties to govern, whereas his counterpart (and ex-partner) Scholar-General Zhang Er was made king of the entire former state of Zhao. He now requested to borrow some troops from Rong to even the score.

  Rong obligingly sent over an auxiliary division to augment Chen Yu’s small army. With this new force, Chen Yu was able to defeat his ex-partner Zhang Er and topple him from the throne. Zhang Er fled but, to everyone’s surprise, he turned to Liu Bang instead of Xiang Yu for refuge.

  This was a slap in the face for Xiang Yu. Immediately after the battle of Julu, Xiang Yu’s power and prestige had been such that all the nobles had fallen to their knees when they were summoned into his camp, and none dared look him in the eye.

  Now, less than a year later, Xiang Yu’s reputation had already diminished to such an extent that warlords of the area were turning to his arch rival, Liu Bang, instead. It did not help that on returning to his capital city of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu continued to behave as if he were still the almighty commandant of All Under Heaven, answerable to no one but himself. Resentful of Emperor Yi for not going against the covenant, he had him murdered. Following this atrocity, he had King Cheng of Haan killed as well, thereby further aggravating the enmity of Liu Bang’s strategist, Zhang Liang, who was born and bred in Haan.

  Having gathered all the reports, Liu Bang concentrated his efforts on expanding eastward. Following General in Chief Hahn Xin’s war plan to the letter, Liu Bang first made a public announcement that a few hundred soldiers were being dispatched to repair the burned zhan dao, “planks built along the face of a cliff.” Everyone knew that this was a time-consuming and intricate task that would take at least a year.

  Meanwhile, in October 206 B.C.E., General in Chief Hahn Xin and Liu Bang led their well-drilled army by way of the little-known Chen-cang gu dao, “former road,” and made a surprise attack on Treasurer Zhang Han. Utterly unprepared, Zhang Han suffered two major defeats and fled. Thereupon Liu Bang subjugated the area with ease and entered the former capital city of Xianyang. He was enthusiastically welcomed by the Qin people. Of the three kings of Guanzhong appointed by Xiang Yu, Zhang Han committed suicide while the other two defected to Liu Bang.

  Hahn Xin’s famous war plan, which resulted in Liu Bang’s rapid capture of Guanzhong, has become a proverb: ming xiu zhan dao, an du Cheng Cang, “openly repairing the plank roads but secretly crossing via Cheng Cang.” The proverb means “outwardly pretending to advance along one path while secretly following another route” or “doing one thing under cover of another.”

  Throughout the Cultural Revolution, Mao Tse-tung’s wife, Jiang Qing (Madame Mao), actively promoted the cult of Mao’s personality throughout China. She traveled from province to province, lectured at political rallies, produced ballets, movies, and musicals, and appeared frequently on television. I once commented to my father that she and Mao Tse-tung did not seem to spend much time together. With a twinkle in his eye, Father replied, “Ming xiu zhan dao, an du Cheng Cang!” By saying this, Father meant that while Mao’s wife was extolling his virtues to an adoring public, Mao was actually having secret affairs with other women.

  Xiang Yu was beside himself with fury at the turn of events. Torn between attacking Liu Bang for taking the Land Within the Passes or Rong for taking Qi, Xiang Yu could not decide what to do. At that moment he received a letter from Liu Bang’s strategist, Zhang Liang.

  Zhang Liang was traveling in his native state of Haan pacifying his people after Xiang Yu executed King Cheng of Haan. In his heart he hated Xiang Yu for this deed but did not dare voice his resentment. In his letter Zhang Liang wrote, “Liu Bang’s only desire is to go according to the covenant and possess the Land Within the Passes. Once he has done so, he will stop his conquests.”

  Soon afterward, Zhang Liang sent Xiang Yu a second letter in which he related the rebellion of Rong and his military alliances. “Your servant has heard that Rong and Scholar-General Chen Yu have joined forces for the sole purpose of destroying Your Majesty and Chu. Their accord will pose grave dangers for Your Majesty. These two are your real enemies.”

  Convinced, Xiang Yu attacked Rong instead of Liu Bang. He marched northward into Qi and inflicted a total defeat on Rong. The latter fled in panic to a city nearby, where he was killed by the local people. Qi then surrendered to Xiang Yu.

  In spite of the Qi people’s surrender, Xiang Yu’s soldiers rained destruction on their homes, temples, and shops. They burned their city walls, buried alive Rong’s surrendered soldiers, and kidnapped the women. Then Xiang Yu went north along the coast, allowing his troops to kill and destroy wherever he led them.

  Thereupon the people of Qi rose and rebelled against Xiang Yu again. Rong’s younger brother and son gathered 50,000 men and retreated to the city of Chengyang. They dug in and made that city a fortress of opposition against Xiang Yu. Although Xiang Yu’s troops surrounded the city walls, the people were determined not to surrender and resisted valiantly.

  While Xiang Yu was causing havoc in the state of Qi, Liu Bang was busy in his own way. First he proclaimed a general amnesty in the territories he ruled. Besides Han and Bashu, his kingdom now included the Land Within the Passes. He ordered his people to remove the Qin dynasty’s gods of the “land and grains” and establish the Han dynasty’s gods instead. (Traditionally, a change in the gods of the “land and grains” was only made at the beginning of a new dynasty.) He showed his bounty by exempting his people from land tax for a period of two years. Those who were fifty years or older, incorrupt, respected their parents, possessed leadership qualities, and did good works were elevated to the position of san lao, a respected elder, one in each district. The san laos were exempt from forced labor and garrison duty and were given wine and meat at the new year. One of the district san laos was selected to be the prefectural san lao. The latter served as a consultant to the prefect and the chief of police.

  San lao is an interesting term. The two words mean “three olds,” but there are many meanings. As the
first part of the proverb san lao si yan, the words san lao mean “three honests,” or being honest in thought, deed, and words; and the words si yan mean “four stricts,” or setting strict standards for work, organization, attitude, and observation of discipline. However, san lao also implies someone who has been recommended to those in power as possessing certain desirable qualities such as moral fiber, filial piety, leadership, and intelligence. It is interesting to note that in 1989 the second-generation Communist Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping (Mao was the first-generation leader) handpicked the third-generation leader Jiang Zemin as his successor precisely because Deng thought Jiang possessed these san lao qualities. President Jiang has held the reins of power since Deng’s death in 1997. He and Premier Zhu Rongji are widely perceived in Chinese circles as being incorruptible ministers who have successfully managed the difficult task of maintaining political stability while fostering economic growth for the last thirteen years.

  During the summer of 1996, Jiang Zemin invited eight leading Chinese historians to the seaside resort of Beidaihe and asked each to present his views on Chinese and world history. “If a person does not know Chinese history,” Jiang proclaimed, “he will never comprehend the principles governing the evolution of Chinese society.”

  Although Jiang’s term of office will end in the fall of 2002, it is expected that his will be the dominant voice in selecting the forthcoming fourth-generation Chinese leader, doubtless once more taking into account the candidate’s san lao qualities. Jiang’s designated successor appears to be fifty-nine-year-old Vice President Hu Jintao, who first came into prominence in 1992, while Deng Xiaoping was still alive. Transition of power is scheduled to take place toward the end of 2002, and Hu is expected to become President of China in the spring of 2003.

  One of the prefectural san laos, His Excellency Duke Dong, came to Liu Bang and said, “Your Majesty has the intention of defeating Xiang Yu. In order to win, you must convince everyone that you are fighting for a just cause. Xiang Yu has acted in a cruel and inhuman fashion. He has murdered his lord, Emperor Yi, for no reason. Make clear to All Under Heaven that Xiang Yu is a wrongdoer. Your enemy can thereupon be conquered without difficulty.”

  Grasping immediately the significance of the san lao’s suggestion, Liu Bang agreed wholeheartedly and ordered that everyone in his army should wear white mourning garments to commemorate the death of Emperor Yi. He himself rode around in a plain coach drawn by white horses, uncovered his arm, and wailed loudly while his whole army mourned and lamented.

  After three days Liu Bang sent messengers to all the nobles, saying, “All of Us Under Heaven together placed Emperor Yi on the throne as our sovereign. Now Xiang Yu has banished and murdered him without cause. This was da ni wu dao, ‘treason and heresy of the worst kind.’ We and our troops are all wearing mourning garments to lament his loss. We are sending soldiers to sail southward down the Yangzi River toward the state of Chu and would like to unite with you, nobles and kings, to attack the one in Chu who has committed this inhuman act and murdered our emperor.”

  In his attack on Chu, Liu Bang was joined by five other kings who had previously been crowned by Xiang Yu. With Xiang Yu away in Qi, Liu Bang sailed down the Yangtze River with a great army totaling half a million troops and easily captured Pengcheng, Xiang Yu’s home city and the capital of Chu.

  Liu Bang and his men took over Xiang Yu’s luxurious palaces, gardens, treasures, and beautiful women. Night after night they feasted at great banquets and enjoyed themselves.

  Receiving the news that Liu Bang had taken Pengcheng, Xiang Yu took immediate action. Leaving his generals to continue the siege of Chengyang in Qi, he picked only 30,000 of his best troops and rode night and day by way of unfrequented paths back to Chu. At dawn he made a surprise attack against the Han army of Liu Bang and fought a great battle at Pengcheng. By noon he had already crushed it. So many officers and men were killed that the river became blocked with corpses and would not flow. It was estimated that over 100,000 Han soldiers died.

  Liu Bang himself was surrounded by Xiang Yu’s soldiers and about to be captured. Suddenly a great wind arose from the northwest, toppling trees and blowing away houses, stirring up so much sand and gravel that the day became dark and it was difficult to see anything. During the confusion Liu Bang quickly escaped with a few cavalrymen. He went by way of his hometown of Pei, hoping to find his family. But his family had already fled.

  On the road west back to the Land Within the Passes, Liu Bang happened to see his two children hurrying along in panic among a crowd of refugees. It had been four years since he had last seen them. At first they were all delighted to see one another, and Liu Bang carried them into his chariot. But Xiang Yu’s cavalrymen continued to pursue them. Liu Bang pushed the two children onto the road so that his chariot could travel faster. But his driver and personal assistant Xia (the same man who rescued General in Chief Hahn Xin from execution) gathered them back into the chariot. He looked reproachfully at Liu Bang and said, “Even though this road is fraught with hazards, by continuously whipping the horses so fiercely you will not make them run any faster. Neither should you throw away your own children!”

  Liu Bang’s wife and father were trying to flee by unfrequented paths, but they were captured. Xiang Yu placed them under guard and held them hostage, taking them with him wherever he went.

  When the other nobles saw that Liu Bang had been defeated, they all fled and some even defected back to Xiang Yu. Liu Bang encamped at the city of Jungyang and replenished his troops and provisions. He built a walled road connecting the city to the Yellow River in order to be supplied with grain from the Ao Granary nearby.

  Xiang Yu several times invaded and captured the walled road of Han, thus depriving the Han army of food. In June of 204 B.C.E. Xiang Yu besieged Liu Bang at the city of Jungyang. Liu Bang begged for peace, suggesting that Xiang Yu should rule the area east of Jungyang while Liu Bang would govern the territory west of Jungyang. Xiang Yu was tempted to accept, but his Second Father, Old Man Fan, objected. “Don’t do it!” Old Man Fan advised. “You have him cornered, and he needs peace desperately to survive right now. If you do not take this golden opportunity to destroy him, you’ll regret it one day.”

  Liu Bang was very much worried about Old Man Fan’s cunning and decided to adopt a special plan devised by an adviser called Chen Ping. Chen Ping was a brilliant thinker who had defected from Xiang Yu after the latter accused him of being disloyal. He was familiar with Xiang Yu’s paranoid tendencies.

  Liu Bang gave a war chest of 40,000 catties of gold to Chen Ping to carry out his plan. With this gold, Adviser Chen Ping bribed the officers in daily contact with Xiang Yu and told them to spread the rumor that Old Man Fan was planning to rebel and was in secret contact with Liu Bang. The next time Xiang Yu’s messenger arrived at Liu Bang’s camp, a most sumptuous banquet with the best foods, including pork, lamb, beef, and wines, was laid out in front of him. As soon as he walked into the room, Liu Bang pretended to feign surprise and exclaimed, “I was told that Old Man Fan’s messenger was lunching with me! But are you not the messenger of Xiang Yu instead?” Thereupon Liu Bang ordered that the best dishes be removed, replacing them with inferior fare.

  The messenger returned and reported everything to Xiang Yu. Liu Bang was entirely successful in his fan jian ji, “stratagem of sowing discord between his enemies.” Xiang Yu began to suspect Old Man Fan of treason and started to strip away his power. The two quarreled frequently and were now often at odds with each other. Feeling unappreciated, Old Man Fan finally said angrily, “Since all the major matters under Heaven have already been settled, I’m sure Your Majesty will be able to decide everything for yourself from now on. I beg to be allowed to retire and spend the remaining years in my village home.”

  Xiang Yu readily gave his consent. Old Man Fan left in a huff, full of anger and resentment. Halfway south on the road to Pengcheng, he developed a malignant ulcer on his back and died.

  In spite
of this, Liu Bang’s predicament within the city of Jungyang was becoming desperate. It was July, and he had been besieged for three months.

  One night Liu Bang sent out more than 2000 armor-wearing women by the east gate. Xiang Yu’s troops attacked them from all sides. Meanwhile, one of Liu Bang’s officers, named Ji, mounted the king’s imperial chariot, with its distinctive yellow canopy and plumes of pheasant feathers attached to the bit of the left outside horse, saying, “Our food is finished. I, the King of Han, hereby surrender!” Hearing this, Xiang Yu’s soldiers all called out, “Long live Our Majesty!” and rushed to the east gate to surround the imperial chariot and capture the pretended King of Han.

  In the confusion, Liu Bang slipped out of the western gate with a few cavalrymen and fled.

  Xiang Yu approached the imperial coach, recognized Officer Ji, and asked, “Where is Liu Bang?”

  Officer Ji replied, “He has escaped and is no longer in the city.”

  Whereupon Xiang Yu burned Officer Ji to death.

  Back in the Land Within the Passes, Zhang Liang advised Liu Bang to deploy various generals to attack Xiang Yu on several fronts simultaneously. For a whole year Liu Bang kept Xiang Yu scurrying hither and thither fighting one battle after another. Finally, in July 203 B.C.E., Xiang Yu stormed the city of Jungyang and captured its defender, Grand Secretary Zhou, alive.

  Xiang Yu said to Zhou, “If you agree to defect to my side, I will make you a top general and appoint you with an income of 30,000 families.”

  But Zhou derided him and said, “Unless you surrender to Liu Bang forthwith, you will soon become his captive. You are no match for him.”