The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language

  Human versus other primate gestation periods: Corballis, 1991.

  Brain growth & language development: Bates, Thal, & Janowsky, 1992; Locke, 1992; Huttenlocher, 1990.

  Children’s language in evolution: Williams, 1966.

  Linguistic development and motor development: Lenneberg, 1967.

  Foreign language learning: Hakuta, 1986; Grosjean, 1982; Bley-Vroman, 1990; Birdsong, 1989.

  Critical ages for second language acquisition: Lieberman, 1984; Bley-Vroman, 1990; Newport, 1990; Long, 1990.

  Critical periods for first language acquisition: Deaf: Newport, 1990. Genie: Curtiss, 1989; Rymer, 1992. Isabelle: Tartter, 1986. Chelsea: Curtiss, 1989.

  Recovery from brain injury: Curtiss, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967.

  Biology of the life cycle: Williams, 1966.

  Evolution of the critical period: Hurford, 1991.

  Senescence: Williams, 1957; Medawar, 1957.

  10. Language Organs and Grammar Genes

  Associated Press story: February 11, 1992. Kilpatrick: Universal Press Syndicate, February 28, 1992. Bombeck: March 5, 1992.

  Broca: Caplan, 1987. Language on the left: Caplan, 1987, 1992; Corballis, 1991; Geschwind, 1979; Geschwind & Galaburda, 1987; Gazzaniga, 1983.

  Left-hemisphere language and the Psalms: example from Michael Corballis.

  Language affects scalp electrodes: Neville et al., 1991; Kluender & Kutas, 1993.

  Language lights up brains: Wallesch et al., 1985; Peterson et al., 1988, 1990; Mazoyer et al., 1992; Zatorre et al., 1992; Poeppel, 1993.

  Language, not language-like stimuli and responses, in the left: Gardner, 1974; Etcoff, 1986. Sign language in the left, gesturing the right: Poizner, Klima, & Bellugi, 1990; Corina, Vaid, & Bellugi, 1992.

  Bilateral symmetry: Corballis, 1991. Symmetry is sexy: Cronin, 1992.

  Twisted chordates: Kinsbourne, 1978. Snail anatomy: Buchsbaum, 1948.

  Lopsided animals: Corballis, 1991.

  Lopsided brains: Corballis, 1991; Kosslyn, 1987; Gazzaniga, 1978, 1989.

  Southpaws: Corballis, 1991; Coren, 1992. Parsing by relatives of southpaws: Bever et al., 1989.

  Perisylvian cortex as the language organ: Caplan, 1987; Gazzaniga, 1989.

  Peter Hogan’s aphasia: Goodglass, 1973.

  Broca’s aphasia: Caplan, 1987, 1992; Gardner, 1974; Zurif, 1989.

  ERP and PET pick up language in left anterior perisylvian: Kluender & Kutas, 1993; Neville et al., 1991; Mazoyer et al., 1992; Wallesch et al., 1985; Stromswold, Caplan, & Alpert, 1993.

  Anatomy of Broca’s aphasia: Caplan, 1987; Dronkers et al., 1992. Parkinson’s and language: Lieberman et al., 1992. Broca’s aphasics detect ungrammaticality: Linebarger, Schwartz, & Saffran, 1983; Cornell, Fromkin, & Mauner, 1993.

  Wernicke’s aphasic: Gardner, 1974.

  Wernicke’s and related aphasias: Gardner, 1974; Geschwind, 1979; Caplan, 1987, 1992.

  Anomia: Gardner, 1974; Caplan, 1987. The man with no nouns: Baynes & Iven, 1991.

  Words and EEG’s: Neville et al., 1991. Words and PET: Peterson et al., 1990; Poeppel, 1993.

  Different aphasias in different people: Caplan, 1987, 1992; Miceli et al., 1989. Losing derivational morphology while keeping inflectional morphology: Miceli & Caramazza, 1988.

  Banananomia: Warrington & McCarthy, 1987; Hillis & Caramazza, 1991; Hart, Berndt, & Caramazza, 1985; Farah, 1990.

  Anomalies and variation in language localization: Caplan, 1987; Basso et al., 1985; Bates, Thal, & Janowsky, 1992.

  Visual areas: Hubel, 1988. Neuroscience: Gazzaniga, 1992; see also the special issue of Scientific American on “Mind and Brain,” September 1992.

  Stimulation of circumscribed but variable language spots: Ojemann & Whitaker, 1978; Ojemann, 1991.

  Words as hubs: Damasio and Damasio, 1992.

  Moving language around in baby brains: Curtiss, 1989; Caplan, 1987; Bates, Thal, & Janowsky, 1992; Basso et al., 1985.

  Functional MRI: Belliveau et al., 1991; MEG: Gallen, 1994.

  Computing in neural networks: McCulloch & Pitts, 1943; Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986.

  Computing language in neural networks: McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986; Pinker & Prince, 1988; Pinker & Mehler, 1988.

  Neural development: Rakic, 1988; Shatz, 1992; Dodd & Jessell, 1988; von der Malsburg & Singer, 1988.

  Transgenic pig: Brian Duffy, North America Syndicate.

  Genetics of stuttering and dyslexia: Ludlow & Cooper, 1983. Genetics of SLI: Gopnik & Crago, 1991; Gopnik, 1993; Stromswold, 1994. Pronunciation errors in twins: Locke & Mather, 1989. Grammar in twins: Mather & Black, 1984; Munsinger & Douglas, 1976; Fahey, Kamitomo, & Cornell, 1978; Bishop, North, & Donlan, 1993; Adopted babies’ language development: Hardy-Brown, Plomin, & DeFries, 1981.

  Three generations of SLI: Gopnik, 1990a, 1990b, 1993; Gopnik & Crago, 1991.

  Universal human nature and individual uniqueness: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a.

  Separated at birth: Holden, 1987; Lykken et al., 1992.

  Behavior genetics: Bouchard et al., 1990; Lykken et al., 1992; Plomin, 1990.

  Bushspeak: The Editors of The New Republic, 1992. Quaylespeak: Goldsman, 1992.

  Linguistic geniuses: Yogi Berra, from Safire, 1991; Lederer, 1987. Dr. Seuss (Theodore Geisel), from On Beyond Zebra, 1955. Nabokov, from Lolita, 1958. King, from the march on Washington, 1963. Shakespeare, from Hamlet, Act 2, Scene 2.

  11. The Big Bang

  Elephants: Williams, 1989; Carrington, 1958.

  Darwinian explanations of the language instinct: Pinker & Bloom, 1990; Pinker, in press; Hurford, 1989, 1991; Newmeyer, 1991; Brandon & Hornstein, 1986; Corballis, 1991.

  Animal communication: Wilson, 1972; Gould and Marler, 1987.

  Nonlinguistic communication and the brain: Deacon, 1988, 1989; Caplan, 1987; Myers, 1976; Robinson, 1976.

  Gua and Viki: Tartter, 1986.

  Sarah: Premack & Premack, 1972; Premack, 1985. Kanzi: Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991; Greenfield & Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991. Washoe: Gardner & Gardner, 1969, 1974. Koko: Patterson, 1978. See Wallman, 1992, for a review.

  Nice guys in the animal kingdom: Sagan & Druyan, 1992. Quotation from excerpt in Parade magazine, September 20, 1992.

  Nim: Terrace, 1979; Terrace et al., 1979. Ape language debunkers: Terrace et al., 1979; Seidenberg & Petitto, 1979; Petitto & Seidenberg, 1979; Seidenberg, 1986; Seidenberg & Petitto, 1987; Petitto, 1988; see Wallman, 1992, for a review. Threatened lawsuit: Wallman, 1992, p. 5.

  Deaf signer observing chimps: Neisser, 1983, pp. 214–216.

  The misbehavior of organisms: Breland & Breland, 1961.

  Bates on Big Bangs: Bates, Thal, & Marchman, 1991, pp. 30, 35.

  Chains, ladders, and bushes in evolution: Mayr, 1982; Dawkins, 1986; Gould, 1985.

  Featherless biped: example from Wallman, 1992.

  Logical impossibility of the liver: Lieberman, 1990, pp. 741–742.

  New modules in evolution: Mayr, 1982.

  Broca’s area in monkeys: Deacon, 1988, 1989; Galaburda & Pandya, 1982.

  Chimp and human DNA: King & Wilson, 1975; Miyamoto, Slightom, & Goodman, 1987.

  Bow-wow, ding-dong, gestural, and other theories of transitional language: Harnad, Steklis, & Lancaster, 1976.

  Dating language origins: Pinker, 1992, in press; Bickerton, 1990. Evolution of modern humans: Stringer & Andrews, 1988; Stringer, 1990; Gibbons, 1993.

  Descent of larynx and Neanderthal speech: Lieberman, 1984. Neanderthal fans: Gibbons, 1992. Heimlich maneuver: Parade, June 28, 1992.

  Chomsky denigrates natural selection: Chomsky, 1972, pp. 97–98; Chomsky, 1988, p. 167.

  Logic of natural selection: Darwin, 1859/1964; Williams, 1966, 1992; Mayr, 1983; Dawkins, 1986; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990b; Maynard Smith, 1984, 1986; Dennett, 1983.

  Just-so stories: Gould & Lewontin, 1979; Piatelli-Palmarini, 1989. It’s just not so: Dawkins, 1986; Mayr, 1983; Maynard Smith, 1988; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, b; Pinker & Bloom, 1990; Dennett, 1983.

  Natural lang
uage and natural selection: Pinker & Bloom, 1990.

  Chomsky on the physics of brains: in Piatelli-Palmarini, 1980.

  Language in dwarfs: Lenneberg, 1967. Language in normal hydrocephalics: Lewin, 1980. Normal brains and analytic processing in SLI: Gopnik, 1990b.

  The throwing madonna: Calvin, 1991.

  Demystifying language evolution: Pinker & Bloom, 1990.

  Bates on three quarters of a rule: Bates, Thal, & Marchman, 1991, p. 31.

  Bickerton on protolanguage and the Big Bang: Bickerton, 1990; Pinker, 1992.

  Premack on mastodon-hunters: Premack, 1985, pp. 281–282.

  Advantages of complex language: Burling, 1986. Cognitive arms race: Cosmides & Tooby, 1992. Gossip: Barkow, 1992. Some of the passages in this section are based on Pinker & Bloom, 1990.

  Descent versus modification: Tooby & Cosmides, 1989.

  12. The Language Mavens

  On language mavens: Bolinger, 1980; Bryson, 1990; Lakoff, 1990.

  History of prescriptive grammar: Bryson, 1990; Crystal, 1987; Lakoff, 1990; McCrum, Cran, & MacNeil, 1986; Nunberg, 1992.

  Write, wrote; bite, bote: Lederer, 1990, p. 117.

  Everyone and their brother: LINGUIST electronic bulletin board, Oct. 9, 1991.

  A fifth of English verbs were nouns: Prasada & Pinker, 1993.

  Flying out and Sally Ride: Kim, Pinker, Prince, & Prasada, 1991; Kim, Marcus, Pinker, Hollander, & Coppola, in press.

  Bernstein on broadcasted: Bernstein, 1977, p. 81.

  Wordwatchers: Quine, 1987; Thomas, 1990.

  The Boston Globe on get your goat: December 23, 1992.

  Taking it on the lam: Allen, 1983.

  Bad grammar leading to violence: Bolinger, 1980, pp. 4–6.

  Shock-grammarian: Simon, 1980, pp. 97, 165–166.

  Crazy English: Lederer, 1990, pp. 15–21.

  Slurvian: Lederer, 1987, pp. 114–117.

  Howlers: Lederer, 1987; Brunvand, 1989.

  Urban legends and xeroxlore: Brunvand, 1989.

  Language sages: Bernstein, 1977; Safire, 1991.

  Child language transcripts: MacWhinney, 1991.

  Me and Jennifer/Between you and I: Emonds, 1986.

  Low-lifes, cut-throats, ne’er-do-wells, and other disreputable compounds: Quirk et al., 1985.

  Barzun on parts of speech: quoted in Bolinger, 1980, p. 169.

  Adjectives from participles: Bresnan, 1982.

  13. Mind Design

  Language as a window into human nature: Rymer, 1993.

  Sentence understanding, relativism, and fiberglass powerboats: Fodor, 1985, p. 5.

  Standard Social Science Model: Tooby & Cosmides, 1992; Degler, 1991; Brown, 1991.

  “Biological determinism”: Gould, 1981; Lewontin, Rose, & Kamin, 1984; Kitcher, 1985; Chorover, 1979; See Degler, 1991.

  Educating either sex: Mead, 1935. Training a dozen infants: Watson, 1925.

  Evolutionary psychology: Darwin, 1872, 1874; James, 1892/1920; Marr, 1982; Symons, 1979, 1992; Sperber, 1985, in press; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, b, 1992; Jackendoff, 1987, 1992; Gazzaniga, 1992; Keil, 1989; Gallistel, 1990; Cosmides & Tooby, 1987; Shepard, 1987; Rozin & Schull, 1988; See also Konner, 1982, and the contributions to Barkow, Cosmides, & Tooby, 1992, and Hirschfeld & Gelman, in press.

  Merchants of astonishment: Geertz, 1984.

  Mead in Samoa: Freeman, 1983.

  Anthropologists swimming through metaculture: Brown, 1991; Sperber, 1982; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992, p. 92.

  Universal People: Brown, 1991.

  Strictures on similarity: Goodman, 1972, p. 445.

  Innate similarity space: Quine, 1969.

  Artificial learning systems: Pinker, 1979, 1989; Pinker & Prince, 1988; Prasada & Pinker, 1993.

  Modules of mind: Chomsky, 1975, 1980b, 1988; Marr, 1982; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992; Jackendoff, 1992; Sperber, in press. For a different conception, see Fodor, 1983, 1985.

  Biological erudition of hunter-gatherers: Konner, 1982; Kaplan, 1992.

  Folk biological taxonomies: Berlin, Breedlove, & Raven, 1973; Atran, 1987, 1990.

  The cerebral infant: Spelke et al., 1992; Wynn, 1992; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993.

  Skunks turning into raccoons: Keil, 1989.

  Pawpaws and pineapples among the Yoruba: Jeyifous, 1986.

  Flamingos, blackbirds, and bats: Gelman & Markman, 1987.

  Flower power: Kaplan, 1992; see also Orians & Heerwagen, 1992.

  Folk science turning into science: Carey, 1985; Keil, 1989; Atran, 1990. Analogy and metaphor in mathematics and physical science: Gentner & Jeziorski, 1989; Lakoff, 1987. Stimulating our mental modules: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990b; Barkow, 1992.

  Innateness versus heritability: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1992.

  Universal human nature and unique individuals: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1992.

  Sex differences in the psychology of sex: Symons, 1979, 1980, 1992; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Wilson & Daly, 1992.

  Race as illusion: Bodmer & Cavalli-Sforza, 1970; Gould, 1977; Lewontin, Rose, & Kamin, 1984; Lewontin, 1982; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a.

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