The Renaissance

  BY WILL DURANT

  The Story of Philosophy

  Transition

  The Pleasure of Philosophy

  Adventures in Genius

  BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT

  THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION

  1. Our Oriental Heritage

  2. The Life of Greece

  3. Caesar and Christ

  4. The Age of Faith

  5. The Renaissance

  6. The Reformation

  7. The Age of Reason Begins

  8. The Age of Louis XIV

  9. The Age of Voltaire

  10. Rousseau and Revolution

  11. The Age of Napoleon

  The Lessons of History

  Interpretation of Life

  A Dual Autobiography

  COPYRIGHT 1953 BY WILL DURANT

  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

  INCLUDING THE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION

  IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN ANY FORM

  PUBLISHED BY SIMON AND SCHUSTER

  A DIVISION OF GULF & WESTERN CORPORATION

  SIMON & SCHUSTER BUILDING

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  1230 AVENUE OF THE AMERICAS

  NEW YORK, NEW YORK 10020

  www.SimonandSchuster.com

  SIMON AND SCHUSTER AND COLOPHON ARE TRADEMARKS

  OF SIMON & SCHUSTER

  ISBN 0–671–61600–5

  LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 53–10016

  MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

  eISBN-13: 978-1-45164-762-4

  TO MY WIFE

  Who has shared in a hundred ways

  in writing this book

  To the Reader

  THIS volume, while complete and independent in itself, forms Part V in a history of civilization written on the “integral method” of uniting in one narrative all phases of human activity. The series began in 1935 with Our Oriental Heritage—a history of Egypt and the Near and Middle East to 323 B.C, and of India, China, and Japan to 1930. Part II, The Life of Greece (1939), recorded Greek history and culture from the beginnings, and the history of the Near and Middle East from 323 B.C., to the Roman Conquest in 146 B.C. Part III, Caesar and Christ (1944), carried the story of white civilization to A.D. 325, centered around the rise and fall of Rome, and the first centuries of Christianity. Part IV, The Age of Faith (1950), continued the narrative to 1300, including Byzantine civilization, Islam, Judaism, and Latin Christendom.

  The present work aims to give a rounded picture of all phases of human life in the Italy of the Renaissance—from the birth of Petrarch in 1304 to the death of Titian in 1576. The term “Renaissance” will in this book refer only to Italy. The word does not properly apply to such native maturations, rather than exotic rebirths, as took place in France, Spain, England, and the Lowlands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and even in Italy the designation lays undue stress on that revival of classic letters which was of less importance to Italy than the ripening of its economy and culture into their own characteristic forms.

  In order to avoid a superficial repetition of the excellent books already in print on this subject, the scale of treatment has been enlarged as compared with the previous volumes in the series. Moreover, as we approach our own epoch our interests are more widely engaged; we still feel in our blood the sap of those effervescent centuries in which modern Europe began; and their ideas, events, and personalities are especially vital to an understanding of our own minds and times.

  I have studied at first hand nearly all the works of art mentioned in this book, but I lack the technical training that would give me the right to express any critical judgments. I have ventured, however, to voice my impressions and preferences. Modern art is absorbed in a forgivable reaction against the Renaissance, and is zealously experimenting to find new forms of beauty or significance. Our appreciation of the Renaissance should not deter us from welcoming every sincere and disciplined attempt to imitate not its products but its originality.

  If circumstances permit, a sixth volume, probably under the title of The Age of the Reformation, will appear three or four years hence, covering the history of Christian, Islamic, and Judaic civilization outside of Italy from 1300, and in Italy from 1576 to 1648. The enlarged scale of treatment, and the imminence of senility, make it advisable to plan an end of the series with a seventh volume, The Age of Reason, which may carry the tale to the beginning of the nineteenth century.

  Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Joseph Auslander for permission to quote his fine translation of a sonnet by Petrarch; to the Cambridge University Press for permission to quote a paragraph by Richard Garnett from Volume I of The Cambridge Modern History; to my wife for a hundred illuminating suggestions and conversations; to Dr. C. Edward Hopkin for aid in classifying the material; to Miss Mary Kaufman and Miss Flora Kaufman for varied clerical assistance; to Mrs. Edith Digate for her highly competent typing of a difficult manuscript; and to Wallace Brockway for expert editing and advice.

  A tardy acknowledgment is due to my publishers. In my long association with them I have found them ideal. They have given me every consideration, have shared with me the expenses of research, and have never let calculations of profit or loss determine our relations. In 1926 they published my Story of Philosophy hoping only to “break even.” We have been together now for twenty-seven years; and it has been for me a fortunate and happy union.

  Notes on the Use of This Book

  1. Dates of birth and death are omitted from the text, but will be found in the index.

  2. Passages in reduced type are for students and may be safely omitted by the general reader.

  3. In locating works of art the name of the city will be used to indicate its leading picture gallery, e.g.:

  Bergamo, the Accademia Carrara;

  Berlin, the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum;

  Brescia, the Pinacoteca Martinengo;

  Chicago, the Art Institute;

  Cleveland, the Museum of Art;

  Detroit, the Institute of Art;

  Leningrad, the Hermitage;

  London, the National Gallery;

  Madrid, the Prado;

  Mantua, the Palazzo Ducale;

  Milan, the Brera Gallery;

  Modena, the Pinacoteca Estense;

  Naples, the Museo Nazionale;

  New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art;

  Parma, the Royal Gallery;

  Venice, the Academy;

  Washington, the National Gallery; but the great galleries of Florence will be distinguished by their names, Uffizi and Pitti, as will the Borghese in Rome.

  WILL DURANT

  Los Angeles, December 1, 1952

  Table of Contents

  BOOK I. PRELUDE: 1300–77

  Chapter I: THE AGE OF PETRARCH AND BOCCACCIO: 1304–75

  I. The Father of the Renaissance

  II. Naples and Boccaccio

  III. The Poet Laureate

  IV. Rienzo’s Revolution

  V. The Wandering Scholar

  VI. Giotto

  VII. The Decameron

  VIII. Siena

  IX. Milan

  X. Venice and Genoa

  XI. Twilight of the Trecento

  XII. Perspective

  Chapter II: THE POPES IN AVIGNON: 1309–77

  I. The Babylonian Captivity

  II. The Road to Rome

  III. The Christian Life

  BOOK II: THE FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE: 1378–1534

  Chapter III: THE RISE OF THE MEDICI: 1378–1464

  I. The Setting

  II. The Material Basis

  III. Cosimo Pater Patriae

  IV. The Humanists

  V. Architecture: the Age of Brunellesco

  VI. Sculpture

  1. Ghiberti

&nb
sp; 2. Donatello

  3. Luca della Robbia

  VII. Painting

  1. Masaccio

  2. Fra Angelico

  3. Fra Filippo Lippi

  VIII. A Miscellany

  Chapter IV: THE GOLDEN AGE: 1464–92

  I. Piero il Gottoso

  II. The Development of Lorenzo

  III. Lorenzo the Magnificent

  IV. Literature: the Age of Politian

  V. Architecture and Sculpture: The Age of Verrocchio

  VI. Painting

  1. Ghirlandaio

  2. Botticelli

  VII. Lorenzo Passes

  Chapter V: SAVONAROLA AND THE REPUBLIC: 1492–1534

  I. The Prophet

  II. The Statesman

  III. The Martyr

  IV. The Republic and the Medici

  V. Art under the Revolution

  BOOK III: ITALIAN PAGEANT: 1378–1534

  Chapter VI: MILAN

  I. Background

  II. Piedmont and Liguria

  III. Pavia

  IV. The Visconti: 1378–1447

  V. The Sforzas: 1450–1500

  VI. Letters

  VII. Arts

  Chapter VII: LEONARDO DA VINCI

  I. Development: 1452–83

  II. In Milan: 1482–99

  III. In Florence: 1500–01, 1503–06

  IV. In Milan and Rome: 1506–16

  V. The Man

  VI. The Inventor

  VII. The Scientist

  VIII. In France: 1516–19

  IX. The School of Leonardo

  Chapter VIII: TUSCANY AND UMBRIA

  I. Piero della Francesca

  II. Signorelli

  III. Siena and Sodoma

  IV. Umbria and the Baglioni

  V. Perugino

  Chapter IX: MANTUA

  I. Vittorino da Feltre

  II. Andrea Mantegna

  III. The First Lady of the World

  Chapter X: FERRARA

  I. The House of Este

  II. The Arts in Ferrara

  III. Letters

  IV. Ariosto

  V. Aftermath

  Chapter XI: VENICE AND HER REALM

  I. Padua

  II. Venetian Economy

  III. Venetian Government

  IV. Venetian Life

  V. Venetian Art

  1. Architecture and Sculpture

  2. The Bellini

  3. From the Bellini to Giorgione

  4. Giorgione

  5. Titian: the Formative Years

  6. Minor Artists and Arts

  VI. Venetian Letters

  1. Aldus Manutius

  2. Bembo

  VII. Verona

  Chapter XII: EMILIA AND THE MARCHES

  I. Correggio

  II. Bologna

  III. Along the Emilian Way

  IV. Urbino and Castiglione

  Chapter XIII: THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES

  I. Alfonso the Magnanimous

  II. Ferrante

  BOOK IV: THE ROMAN RENAISSANCE: 1378–1521

  Chapter XIV: THE CRISIS IN THE CHURCH: 1378–1447

  I. The Papal Schism: 1378–1417

  II. The Councils and the Popes

  III. The Triumph of the Papacy

  Chapter XV: THE RENAISSANCE CAPTURES ROME: 1447–92

  I. The Capital of the World

  II. Nicholas V: 1447–55

  III. Calixtus III: 1455–58

  IV. Pius II: 1458–64

  V. Paul II: 1464–71

  VI. Sixtus IV: 1471–84

  VII. Innocent VIII: 1484–92

  Chapter XVI: THE BORGIAS

  I. Cardinal borgia

  II. Alexander VI: 1492–1503

  III. The Sinner

  IV. Caesar Borgia

  V. Lucrezia Borgia

  VI. The Collapse of the Borgia Power

  Chapter XVII: JULIUS II: 1503–13

  I. The Warrior

  II. Roman Architecture: 1492–1513

  III. The Young Raphael

  1. Development: 1483–1508

  2. Raphael and Julius II: 1508–13

  IV. Michelangelo

  1. Youth: 1475–1505

  2. Michelangelo and Julius II: 1505–13

  Chapter XVIII: LEO X: 1513–21

  I. The Boy Cardinal

  II. The Happy Pope

  III. Scholars

  IV. Poets

  V. The Recovery of Classic Art

  VI. Michelangelo and Leo X: 1513–20

  VII. Raphael and Leo X: 1513–20

  VIII. Agostino Chigi

  IX. Raphael: the Last Phase

  X. Leo Politicus

  BOOK V: DEBACLE

  Chapter XIX: THE INTELLECTUAL REVOLT

  I. The Occult

  II. Science

  III. Medicine

  IV. Philosophy

  V. Guicciardini

  VI. Machiavelli

  1. The Diplomat

  2. The Author and the Man

  3. The Philosopher

  4. Considerations

  Chapter XX: THE MORAL RELEASE

  I. The Founts and Forms of Immorality

  II. The Morals of the Clergy

  III. Sexual Morality

  IV. Renaissance Man

  V. Renaissance Woman

  VI. The Home

  VII. Public Morality

  VIII. Manners and Amusements

  IX. Drama

  X. Music

  XI. Perspective

  Chapter XXI: THE POLITICAL COLLAPSE: 1494–1534

  I. France Discovers Italy: 1494–95

  II. The Attack Renewed: 1496–1505

  III. The League of Cambrai: 1508–16

  IV. Leo and Europe: 1513–21

  V. Adrian VI: 1522–23

  VI. Clement VII: the First Phase

  VII. The Sack of Rome: 1527

  VIII. Charles Triumphant: 1527–30

  IX. Clement VII and the Arts

  X. Michelangelo and Clement VII: 1520–34

  XI. The End of an Age: 1528–34

  BOOK VI: FINALE: 1534–76

  Chapter XXII: SUNSET IN VENICE

  I. Venice Reborn

  II. Aretino

  III. Titian and the Kings

  IV. Tintoretto

  V. Veronese

  VI. Perspective

  Chapter XXIII: THE WANING OF THE RENAISSANCE

  I. The Decline of Italy

  II. Science and Philosophy

  III. Literature

  IV. Twilight in Florence

  V. Benvenuto Cellini

  VI. Lesser Lights

  VII. Michelangelo: the Last Phase

  ENVOI

  BIBLIOGRAPHY

  NOTES

  INDEX

  List of Illustrations

  The page number referred to in the captions is for a discussion of the particular painting or the artist, and sometimes both.

  Part I. This section follows page 64

  FIG. 1—GIOTTO: The Flight into Egypt

  FIG. 2—SIMONE MARTINI: The Annunciation

  FIG. 3—LORENZO GHIBERTI: Doors of the Baptistery

  FIG. 4—DONATELLO: Crucifixion

  FIG. 5—DONATELLO: David

  FIG. 6—DONATELLO: Annunciation

  FIG. 7—LUCA DELLA ROBBIA: Madonna and Child

  FIG. 8—DONATELLO: Gattamelata

  FIG. 9—MASACCIO: The Tribute Money

  FIG. 10—FRA ANGELICO: The Annunciation

  FIG. 11—FRA FILIPPO LIPPI: Virgin Adoring the Child

  FIG. 12—ANDREA DEL VERROCHIO: The Baptism of Christ

  FIG. 13—DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO: Portrait of Count Sassetti (?) and Grandson

  FIG. 14—SANDRO BOTTICELLI: The Birth of Venus

  Part II. This section follows page 224

  FIG. 15—ANDREA DEL SARTO: Madonna delle Arpie

  FIG. 16—CRISTOFORO SOLARI: Tomb Effigies of Lodovico il Moro and Beatrice d’Este

  FIG. 17—AMBROGIA DA PREDIS o
r LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Bianca Sforza

  FIG. 18—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Virgin of the Rocks

  FIG. 19—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Self-portrait

  FIG. 20—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Mona Lisa

  FIG. 21—PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA: Portrait of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro

  FIG. 22—LUCA SIGNORELLI: The End of the World

  FIG. 23—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: The Nativity

  FIG. 24—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: Noah’s Ark

  FIG. 25—PERUGINO: Self-portrait

  FIG. 26—PINTURRICCHIO: The Nativity

  FIG. 27—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Lodovico Gonzaga and His Family

  FIG. 28—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Adoration of the Shepherds

  FIG. 29—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Isabella d’Este

  FIG. 30—TITIAN: Portrait of Isabella d’Este

  Part III. This section follows page 384

  FIG. 31—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Madonna degli Alberetti

  FIG. 32—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredano

  FIG. 33—GIORGIONE: Sleeping Venus

  FIG. 34—GIORGIONE: Concert Champêtre

  FIG. 35—TITIAN: Sacred and Profane Love

  FIG. 36—TITIAN: Venus and Adonis

  FIG. 37—VITTORE CARPACCIO: The Dream of St. Ursula

  FIG. 38—TITIAN: Assumption of the Virgin

  FIG. 39—CORREGGIO: Sts. John and Augustine

  FIG. 40—CORREGGIO: [The Mystic] Marriage of St. Catherine

  FIG. 41—PARMIGIANINO: Madonna della Rosa

  FIG. 42—Majolica from Faenza

  FIG. 43—RAPHAEL: The Pearl Madonna

  FIG. 44—RAPHAEL: Portrait of Pope Julius II

  FIG. 45—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Pietà

  FIG. 46—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Creation of Adam

  Part IV. This section follows page 608

  FIG. 47—RAPHAEL and GIULIO ROMANO: The Transfiguration

  FIG. 48—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Tomb of Lorenzo de’ Medici

  FIG. 49—TITIAN: Portrait of Aretino

  FIG. 50—TITIAN: Portrait of Pope Paul III

  FIG. 51—TITIAN: Portrait of Charles V

  FIG. 52—TITIAN: Venus of Urbino

  FIG. 53—TITIAN: Portrait of a Young Englishman

  FIG. 54—TITIAN: Self-portrait

  FIG. 55—TINTORETTO: The Miracle of St. Mark

  FIG. 56—TINTORETTO: Presentation of the Virgin

  FIG. 57—PAOLO VERONESE: Self-portrait

  FIG. 58—PAOLO VERONESE: Portrait of Daniele Barbaro

  FIG. 59—PAOLO VERONESE: The Rape of Europa

  FIG. 60—PAOLO VERONESE: Mars and Venus

  FIG. 61—DANIELE DA VOLTERRA: Bust of Michelangelo Buonarroti

  BOOK I