The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn From Traditional Societies?

  redistributive economies, 16–17

  relationships. See social bonds

  religion(s), 25, 31, 323–68

  antiquity of, 340, plate 25

  anxiety defusion function, 346–51, 367fig., 368

  chiefs and kings as gods, 16, 356

  comfort provision function, 351–55, 367fig., 368

  definitions of, 326–32, 327–28table, 368

  demonstrations of commitment to, 325, 329, 330–31, 343–44, 361–63, 366

  explanation function, 329, 345–46, 367fig., 368

  functional change over time, 344–45, 367–68, 367fig.

  future of, 368

  human cognition and, 336–40, 355

  learning from traditional societies, 464–65

  moral codes and, 329, 353, 357–59, 367fig., 368

  origin myths, 323–24, 345, 346

  origins and development of, 324, 332–36

  overview, 323–26

  political obedience and, 356–57, 359, 361, 367fig., 368

  political organization and, 347–48, 353–54, 355–57, 367fig., 368

  poverty and, 354, 368

  science and, 346, 348, 350, 368

  social costs and benefits of, 325, 326, 333, 362, 363

  as social groups/movements, 329, 330, 331, 332, 343–44, 363, 368

  standardized organization, 355–56, 367fig., 368

  success and expansion of, 21–22, 363–66

  war and, 356–57, 359–61, 366, 367fig., 368

  See also supernatural beliefs; specific religions

  religious fanaticism, 360, 361

  Rennell Islanders, 219–20, 237–38, 313–14

  restorative justice, 88, 99, 111–14, 168, 466

  See also reconciliation

  Retief, Piet, 137

  retirement, 223–24, 234–35, 239

  revenge

  criminal punishment as, 110–11

  revenge killings, 84–85, 95, 271–72, 289–90

  state prevention of, 98–99, 107, 109, 167–68

  in traditional societies, 84–85, 87, 143, 147, 157

  traditional warfare and, 143, 147, 157, 271–72

  rhabdomancy, 342, 350–51, plate 46

  Richardson, Don, 291

  Richardson, Lewis, 163–64

  risk assessment and tolerance, 270–75, 278, 317–19

  faulty assessments, 277, 317–18, 319

  in the First World, 277, 306–7, 317–19, 459–60, plate 45

  learning from traditional societies, 464

  unfamiliar risks, 276–77

  risk reduction, 283, 284, 306–7

  field scattering as, 303–6

  financial investments, 306–7, plate 45

  See also constructive paranoia

  Robbins, Sterling, 148–49

  Rome, ancient, 381, 417

  Roscoe, Paul, 122

  Rotokas language, 395–96

  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 148, 152

  Roviana people, 158

  Rumsfeld, Donald, 355

  Russia, 156

  language diversity, 376, 377, 380, 399, 401

  wars and violence, 139–40, 146–47, 403

  Russian language, 372

  Saami people, 215

  salt, 417

  and hypertension, 417–21, 423–25

  sources and intake, 415–17, 425–28, 465

  trade in, 68table, 71–72, 416–17

  Samoans, 218

  San people, 215

  Sandeep, S., 441

  Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 405

  Sawi people, 291

  Scandinavian languages, 404

  schools, 200–201, 205, 235, 399

  Schwartz v. Helms Bakery, 117

  science, religion and, 346, 348, 350, 368

  sedentariness, 15, 16, 194, 310, 378

  disease and, 294–96, 413, 433, 434, 437, 440

  Semang people, 139, 156–57, 219

  Sengseng people, 21

  senilicide, 215–17, 286

  Service, Elman, 14–17

  sex, 93, 175, 202, 224, 300

  sexual selection, 333–34

  Shakers, 364

  shamans, 297–98, 339, 348, 355–56

  Sheldon, Steve, 176–77

  Sherman, William Tecumseh, 145–46

  Shermer, Michael, 328table

  Shoshone Indians. See Great Basin Shoshone Indians; Owens Valley Shoshone Indians

  Shostak, Marjorie, 284–85, 414, 450

  Siassi traders, 59–60, 61, 66, 67, 68table, 75

  Siberian peoples, 309table

  siblings, 187, 188, 201, plate 38

  Simpson, Nicole, 112

  Simpson, O. J., 112

  Sioux Indians, 144

  Siriono Indians, 14, 48, 60, 93, 156

  children, 179, 195, 202, 203–4

  elders, 214, 215

  food, 300, 444table

  hygiene, 296–97

  map, 27fig.

  sex, 175, 202

  The Sky Travelers (Gammage), 58

  slavery, 146, 159

  Smith, Joseph, 365

  snakes, 198, 200, 278, 279table, 280, 283–84, 285

  Soccer War, 138

  social bonds, 8, 274, 357–58, 454–55, 457

  adoptions and, 189

  aggregation and dispersal cycles, 315–16

  dispute resolution and, 29, 81, 83–84, 87–90, 101, 105, 115

  of elders, 219, 233–34, 235

  friendship, 52–53

  trade and, 63, 64–65, 73–75

  violence and, 11, 358, 359

  warfare and, 143

  in WEIRD societies, 51–52, 88, 91, 456–58

  See also group affiliation; reconciliation

  social skills, 189–90, 201, 206, 208–9

  allo-parenting and, 189–90

  multi-age playgroups and, 201

  social status

  of elders, 221–27

  luxury objects and, 63–64, 69

  social stratification. See inequality

  Solomon Islands, 151, 158, 301

  sorcery, 159, 249–50, 297–98

  Sorensen, Arthur, 385

  Sosis, Richard, 347, 363

  South America, diabetes in, 433, 451

  South American Indian languages, 397, 398

  South American Indians, 27fig., 56, 132, 309table

  See also specific groups

  Spanish language, 164, 372, 373, 381, 401

  spanking of children, 192–93, 194–95

  Spiro, Melford, 327table

  starvation, 298–300, 308

  See also food scarcity

  state justice systems, 97–118, plate 16

  advantages, 81, 114–18

  attribution of fault or guilt, 96, 102–3, 109, 117

  civil disputes, 99–104, 117, 118

  criminal justice, 99, 108–14, 117, 118, 167

  disadvantages, 104–8, 118, 167–68

  goals of, 97–99, 103, 111, 117

  international disputes, 101–2

  mediation in, 100, 105–8, 116, 466

  Papua New Guinea, 79–80, 86, 98

  reconciliation and restorative justice, 88, 99, 105, 111–14, 118, 168, 466

  state’s interests in, 87, 109–10, 118

  state religions, 356–57

  See also religion(s); specific religions

  state warfare, 140–47, plate 37

  alliances, 141–42

  captives, 141, 159

  forms of, 136, 137, 138, 145–46

  military organization and technology, 140, 142–43, 144, 146–47

  military training, 143, 144, 169

  mortality rates, 127, 128, 139–41, plate 37

  psychology of enmity and killing, 142–43, 168–70

  resolution of, 147–49

  trade and, 164–65

  ultimate causes, 160–61

  war-free states, 155–56

  who is affected by, 140–41, 144, 146–47, 163–65

  See also specif
ic countries and wars

  states, 7, 10–12, 17–18, 19, 353

  acceptance of state authority, 98, 148

  child-rearing practices, 206–7

  religion in, 347–48, 356–57

  violence suppression in, 97–99, 115, 148, 286, 288, 290

  See also political organization; state justice systems; state warfare

  Statistics of Deadly Quarrels (Richardson), 164

  stories and storytelling, 285–86, 291–92

  oral histories, 478–80

  origin myths, 323–24, 345, 346

  strangers and stranger contacts, 1–2, 49–50, 51–52, 290

  group affiliation and, 50–51, 53–54

  political organization and, 11, 16

  religious codes and, 357–59, 367fig., 368

  terms for outsiders, 51

  travel and, 37, 49–50, 54–55, 271–72

  violence and, 4, 50, 271–72, 290

  in WEIRD societies, 1–2, 53

  See also group affiliation; territoriality

  Strauss, Richard, 239–40, plate 40

  sugar, 428–29, 434, 436

  suicide, encouraged or assisted, 215–16, 232

  supernatural beliefs, 325–26, 329, 330, 338, 341–44, 341table, 361

  as causal explanations, 345–46

  intervention by supernatural agents, 329, 331, 345

  religious success and, 365–66

  See also magic; religion(s); superstitions

  superstitions, 342–43, 344, 348, plate 46

  Sutton, Peter, 384

  swaddling of infants, 185

  Sweden, 156, 193

  sweet potatoes, 150–51, 298, 300, 301

  Switzerland, 156

  taboos, 177, 227–29, 298, 339, 348

  Talheim pit burial, 134–35

  talk and talkativeness, 248, 273–75, 291–92, 299–300, 454

  See also stories and storytelling

  Tallensi people, 196

  Tasmania, language loss in, 398

  Tay-Sachs disease, 422

  technology and technological change, 18, 348, 381

  elders and, 225, 235–36, 237–38

  military technology, 142–43, 144

  religion and, 348, 350

  Teerink, C. G. J., 119

  territoriality, 28–29, 37–49, 75

  author’s related New Guinea experiences, 37–41, 261–70

  borders, 39, 42, 45, 46, plate 34

  defenses and patrols, 39, 42, 45, plates 13, 14

  defensive fortifications, 135, 150, 152, 291

  environmental conditions and, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 155

  exclusive territories, 39–41, 41–44, 50

  food scarcity and, 302–3

  non-exclusive land use, 45–49

  trade and, 40, 60–61

  warfare and, 127, 130

  in Western societies, 48–49, plate 14, plate 34

  See also trade; travel

  theft, 94, 158

  See also raiding

  theodicy, 340, 352, 353, 354

  thrifty-gene hypothesis, 442–47

  Tillich, Paul, 346

  tools, trade in, 68–69table, 69, 70

  Toussaint-Louverture, 138

  toys, 204–5, plates 17, 18

  trade, 59–75, 76, plates 32, 33

  forms and patterns of, 60–61, 65–67, 73–75

  geographic knowledge and, 56

  language diversity and, 378

  luxury objects, 63–64, 67, 68–69table, 69–70

  market economies, 61–65

  monopolies, 72–75

  multilingualism and, 383–84

  social bonds and, 63, 64–65, 73–75

  societies lacking, 60

  trade items, 62, 64, 67–71, 68–69table

  trading specialists, 62–63, 66

  travel restrictions and, 40, 60–61

  warfare and, 74, 75, 164–66, 287

  traditional dispute resolution, 8, 24–25, 29, 80

  civil disputes, 99–102

  disadvantages, 115, 116, 117–18

  face-to-face, 93, plate 15

  goals of, 102–3, 108, 111–12

  informal justice in modern states, 7–8, 115

  mediation and negotiation, 82–83, 85, 92, 93, 95–96, 100, 116

  New Guinea accidental death story, 79–86, 89, 117

  overview, 92–97

  reconciliation in, 29, 83–84, 88–90, 103, 105, 111–12, 116

  social bonds and, 29, 81, 87–90, 101, 105, 115

  See also compensation processes; state justice systems

  traditional societies

  advantages, 457–61

  defined, 6

  information sources and scholarship, 23–24, 476–81

  learning from, 7–9, 32–33, 461–66

  maps, 26–27figs.

  risk assessment and tolerance, 270–75, 278, 283

  traditional warfare, 25, 29–30, 80, 119–70, 287, plate 36

  alliances and, 120, 141–42, 143

  ambushes, 120, 122, 137, 141, 144

  attitudes about killing, 143–44, 169, 170

  battles, 120, 122, 136, 141, plate 36

  chronic nature of, 121, 122, 140, 147

  demonization of enemies, 120, 125, 159

  effects of European contact, 132, 133–34, 148–54

  fate of defeated enemies, 141, 146, 158–59

  head-hunting and cannibalism, 151, 158–59

  massacres, 120, 122, 127, 141, 146

  military organization and training, 120, 141, 144–45

  mortality rates, 120, 121, 127–28, 139–41

  motives for, 87, 143, 147, 157–59

  resolution of, 89–90, 147–49

  social factors and benefits, 162–63

  sources of information about, 131–36, 149–50, 152–54

  trade and, 74, 75, 165–66, 287

  typical forms and features, 120–21, 136–38, 141

  ultimate causes, 159–63

  unplanned escalations of violence, 138

  unsuspected enemies, 54–55

  viewed as inefficient, 121, 144–45

  vs. state warfare, 140–47

  war games, 202–3

  weapons and military technology, 121, 135, 142, 144, 150, 151

  who is affected by, 120, 140–41, 144, 146, 165–67

  See also Dani warfare; raiding

  travel, 1–2, 4–5, 29, 37, 48–49, plate 14

  in enemy territories, 49–50, 54–55, 271–72

  friendship and, 29, 53

  geographic knowledge and, 29, 54–56

  trade and, 40, 60–61

  See also territoriality

  treachery, 137–38, 290–91

  tree hazards, 243–44, 279, 280, 285, plate 42

  trespassing. See territoriality

  tribes, 15–16, 18

  Trobriand Islanders, 17, 26fig.

  child discipline, 195–96, 202

  food sharing and storage, 301, 303, 309table

  trade, 66–67, 68table, 75

  Trojan War, 143, 158

  Tswana people, 287

  Tuareg people, 166

  Tumu, Akii, 479

  Turnbull, Colin, 205–6

  Type-1 diabetes, 430–31, 441, 442

  Type-2 diabetes, 32, 430, 431

  See also diabetes

  Ubykh language, 395, 397

  uncontacted peoples, 56–57

  See also first contacts

  Under the Mountain Wall (Matthiessen), 120

  United States

  bilingualism in, 386–87, 400

  communes in, 362–63

  elders in, 223–27, plate 24

  homicide rates, 288

  Indian language losses, 397, 398, 399, 406

  minority languages in, 400

  monolingualism in, 370, 383, 400

  risk assessment and tolerance, 277, 317–18, 319

  salt intake, 416

  sugar intake, 428–29

  Vanua
tu, 371, 377

  Vaupés River Indians, 385–86

  vengeance. See revenge

  Verdi, Giuseppe, 240, plate 41

  vervet monkeys, 337

  vigilantism, 98–99, 107, 109, plate 35

  violence, 29, 271–72, 277–78, 286–92

  among war-free peoples, 156–57

  feuds, 89, 95–96

  language differences and, 403–4

  protective measures, 290–92

  religious codes of peaceful behavior, 358–59

  state suppression of, 97–99, 115, 148, 286, 288, 290

  stranger contacts and, 4, 50, 290

  unplanned escalations of, 138, 289

  vigilantism, 98–99, 107, 109

  vs. warfare, 129–30

  when dispute resolution fails, 97

  See also killing(s); warfare

  vitamin deficiencies, 299

  Vogt, Evon, 327table

  Voltaire, 359

  Wahl, Joachim, 134

  Wanigela people, 411, 439table

  Waorani Indians, 139, 163

  warfare, 119–70

  absence of, 155–56

  definitions of, 129–31

  genetic basis for, 155–57

  hand-to-hand fighting in, 142–43

  religion and, 356–57, 359–61, 366, 367fig., 368

  trade and, 74, 75, 164–66, 287

  warlike animals, 154–55

  See also state warfare; traditional warfare

  wasps, 282

  water-witching, 342, 350–51, plate 46

  wealth. See affluence

  weaning and birth intervals, 179–81

  weapons, 18

  accidental wounds, 281

  state warfare, 142–43, 144

  trade in, 68–69table, 69, 70, 71, 73–74

  traditional warfare, 121, 135, 150, 151

  weather

  food availability and, 301, 302–3, 308

  weather hazards, 280–81

  Weber, Max, 224

  WEIRD societies, 8–9

  advantages, 455–57, 461–62

  child development scholarship, 174–75

  child-rearing practices, 180, 182–83, 184–85, 187, 189, 190–91, plate 39

  defined, 6

  environmental hazards in, 276–77, 279

  friendship in, 51–52

  individualism in, 91, 224

  life expectancies, 231, 233

  shortcomings of, 457–61

  social bonds in, 51–52, 88, 91, 456–58

  stranger contacts in, 1–2, 53

  trade in, 61–65

  See also specific countries

  Welsh language, 409

  Westernized lifestyle adoption

  health and, 4, 31–32, 411–14, 432–33, 449–50

  for safety and comfort, 280

  See also diabetes; hypertension

  Westernized societies. See WEIRD societies

  widow strangling, 21, 216

  widowhood, 233

  Wiessner, Polly, 479

  Wilson, David Sloan, 363–66

  Wilson, Michael, 139

  Witoto Indians, 214

  Wollaston, A. F. R., 298