Jerusalem

  50. Herod Agrippa I: JA 18.143–309, 19.1–360. Persecution of James and Peter: Acts 12.20–3. Kokkinos 271–304. Third Wall: Archeological Park 138. Bahat, Atlas 35. Sartre 78–9 and 98–101. Approved by Mishnah: Peters, Jerusalem 96–7. James son of Zebedee and Peter: Acts 11.27–12.1–19. Herod Agrippa reads Deuteronomy: Goodman 83. On Philo, see Philo, Works vol. 10, Embassy to Caligula. Goodman 88, 118. Caligula character: Suetonius, Caligula. Claudius expels Jewish Christians/Chrestus: Suetonius, Claudius.

  51. Herod Agrippa II and sisters, Claudius, Nero, Poppaea, the procurators: JW 2. 250–70. JA 20.97–222. Goodman 375–82. Kokkinos 318–30. Stewart Perowne, The Later Herods 160–6. Sartre 79–80.

  52. Paul: origins Acts 9–11 and 22–5; Saul at death of Stephen/conversion and acceptance by Church 7.58–60 and 8.1–9.28; return to Jerusalem Acts 11. Quotations from Galatians 11—2.20, 6.11; sin offering 2 Corinthians 5.21; James, Peter, John as “pillars” Galatians 2.6 and 9; Paul’s new Jerusalem, new Israel, Galatians 4.26; on circumcision Philippians 3.2–3; later visit to Jerusalem, arrest, Felix, Agrippa Acts 21–8. Analysis is based on the following: A. N. Wilson, Paul: The Mind of the Apostle; MacCulloch 97–106; Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 47–63; Tabor 292–306; Goodman on Paul’s vast ambition 517–27. James the Just: see Gospel of Thomas and Clement of Alexandria/Eusebius, quoting Hegesippus; the Ascents of James in the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions; the Second Apocalypse of James—quoted in Tabor 287–91. Apostles in Temple: Acts 2.46, 5.21, 3.1–2. “Christian” first used later in Antioch: Sartre 298, 336–9; Acts 11.26.

  53. James the Just: death/succession of Simon. James as priest. Paul: life and conversion Acts 7–11 and 22–5. Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History: Life of Constantine the Great 2.23. Peters, Jerusalem 100–7. On James as righteous priest—Hegesippus; succession of Simon, Hegesippus, Epiphanius, Eusebius, Tabor 321–32.

  54. Josephus, his life and visit to Rome: Josephus, “Life” 1–17. Book of Revelation: MacCulloch 103–5; Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 107–10: the note on Number of the Beast code is based on Freeman 108. Nero persecutions: see Tacitus, Histories. Jewish Revolt starts: Josephus, “Life” 17–38. JW 2.271–305. JA 20.97–223, 20.252–66. Goodman 404–18. Perowne, Later Herods 98–108 and 117–18. Sartre 113–21. Schäfer 114–23. Nero: death of Peter and Paul, citing Origen, Goodman 531.

  55. War, Josephus’ defection and Vespasian as emperor including portents: Suetonius, Vespasian 5; Tacitus, Histories 1.11; Titus and Berenice, Tacitus 2.1–2; emperor/Agrippa II’s support/Berenice in best years and at height of her beauty: Tacitus 2.74–82. JW 2.405–3.340. Josephus defects: JW 3.340–408. War, Gamala and after: JW 4.1–83. Suetonius, Titus 7; wasted a day 8; looks 3. Schäfer 125–9. Sartre 123–7.

  PART TWO: PAGANISM

  1. Triumph: JW 7.96–162. This analysis of Roman attitudes to Judaism from AD 70 owes much to Goodman 452–5. Tacitus 2.4–5, 5.1–13. Masada: JW 7.163–406 (quotation on Jerusalem is Eleazar in JW). Titus, Agrippa II and Berenice after AD 70: Tacitus 2.2. Suetonius, Titus 7. Cassius Dio quoted in Goodman 459. Agrippa II’s political career: Goodman 458–9; diamond of Berenice quoting Juvenal in Goodman 378. Josephus afer AD 70: Josephus, “Life” 64–76. Last Herodians: Kokkinos 246–50 and 361. Last Herodian under Marcus Aurelius: Avi-Yonah 43.

  2. Flavians, Nerva and Trajan. Domitian, Jerusalem and Book of Revelation: MacCulloch 103–5. Nerva relaxes Jewish tax: Goodman 469. On Trajan and revolts of 115: Goodman 471–83. Simon, Jesus’ cousin, persecution of House of David, execution 106: Tabor 338–42 quoting Eusebius and Epiphanius as sources on Flavian and Trajan executions of Davidians. Synagogues in Jerusalem: Eusebius, Church History 4.5. Epiphanius quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 125. Sartre 126–8. Eschatological hopes in Palestine: Sibylline Oracles 4–5; Greek Apocalypse of Baruch III and the Syrian Apocalypse of Baruch II. Zakkai: Schäfer 135–40. Jerusalem: Eusebius quoted in Perowne, Later Herods, half city destroyed and seven synagogues, 191. Judaism/ben Zakkai and Jews could live in Jerusalem 70–132: Avi-Yonah 12–54. Trajan: Goodman 471–81, including quote of Appian on Trajan destroying Jews in Egypt; and of Arrian on general destruction of Jews. Jewish revolt: Dio Cassius 68.32.1–2. Eusebius, Church History 4.2.1–5. Schäfer 141–2. Sartre 127–8. Butcher 45–50.

  3. Hadrian: Dio Cassius 69.12.1–13.3. Character both admirable and bad: Anthony R. Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor 301–7, including Historia Augusta “cruel and merciful” etc. and Epitome de Caesaribus “diverse, manifold, multiform.” Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius 26–39. Aelia: Bahat, Atlas 58–67. Thorsten Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict—career 34–68 and bar Kochba 89–97 and Antinous 168–91. Goodman 481–5. Archeological Park 140. Yoram Tsafrir, “70–638 CE: The Templeless Mountain,” in Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

  4. Simon bar Kochba/Hadrian: this account is based on Dio Cassius 69.12.1–13.3 and 69.14.1–3; Eusebius, Church History 4.6 and Justin. See Opper, Hadrian 89–97, including latest finds from the Cave of Letters. Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor: influence of Antiochus Epiphanes 228–9; coins on visit to Judea 231; foundation of Aelia 232–4; revolt, bar Kochba 268–78; Book of Numbers/Akiba/correspondence/Justin and Eusebius/fall of Betar/plan of new Jerusalem with Hadrian statue on horseback on Holy of Holies with idol of Jupiter from Eusebius, and statue of pig from Jerome, all quoted in Birley. McLynn, Marcus Aurelius 26–39. Bahat, Atlas 58–67. Goodman 485–93, including Roman burial of memories of conflict, even more disastrous than the triumphalism of 70, continuity of Hadrian to Severan dynasty meant no incentive to challenge Hadrian’s ethos 496. See also: Yigal Yadin, Bar-Kokhba—clothes, keys 66; Babatha documents 235. Avi-Yonah 13, probably took Jerusalem/seventy-five settlements destroyed/Palestinian Jewish population—1.3 million. Did Hadrian destroy Temple?: Shanks 47, quoting Chronicon Paschale, Julian, rabbinical references to Third Temple destroyed by Hadrian. Cave resistance: Amos Klauer, “Subterranean Hideaways of Judean Foothills,” in Cathedra 3.114–35. After 335: Sartre 320–5. Post bar Kochba and Simon bar Yohai: Avi-Yonah 15–39, 66. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

  5. Hadrianic city/Roman administration: Butcher 135–300, 240–50, 335–45. Sartre 155, 167–9. Archaeological mysteries, Tenth Legion/Roman finds south of Temple Mount, Herodian ashlars in foundations of Hadrianic Temple: Shanks 43–53. Statues of emperors still on Temple Mount for visit of Bordeaux Pilgrim 333: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 592–3. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Deliberate burying of Golgotha: Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.26–8. Sozomen, Church History 2.1, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 137–42. Zalatinos/Alexander Church/Hospice, Hadrianic walls and outside wall of Helena’s Church: author conversations with Gideon Avni and Dan Bahat. Syncretism of Aelia gods: Sartre 303–21. Attitude to Jews and Roman Aelia: Goodman 490–5. Relaxation of Antoninus Pius: Sartre 320–5. Visit of Marcus Aurelius: Goodman 498. Marcus Aurelius: Butcher 46–8. Herodian Governor of Palestina Julius Severus: Avi-Yonah 43–5. Marcus Aurelius in Aelia quoting Ammianus Marcellinus: Goodman 498. Today’s Old City is Hadrianic shape: David Kroyanker, Jerusalem Architecture (henceforth Kroyanker) 14. Jews: Visit of Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Judah haNasi: Goodman 496–7, 506–11. Severus: Butcher 48–51. Judaism/Judah haNasi: Sartre 319–35. Visits to Jerusalem, Judah haNasi: Avi-Yonah 50–6, 140; Tanaim and court of Nasi/patriarchs up to Judah the Prince 39–40, 54–75; Jerusalem, rending garments 79–80; Severans and Judah the Prince and small group of Rabbi Meir’s students of Holy Community settle in Jerusalem 77–9. Severus and civil war, Caracalla: Sartre 148–9, 157; Butcher 48–51. Jewish return to Jerusalem: Sartre 321–2; Goodman 501–8. Jewish traditions on Jerusalem, in Tosefta, Amidah etc. quoted in Goodman 576–7. Simon Goldhill, Jerusalem: A City of Longing 179. Christian beliefs and persecutions: Goodman 512–24. Isaiah Gafni, “Reinterment in Land of Israel,” in Cathedra 1.101. Christianity after 135: Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 132–41; Ebionites 133; Gnostics 142–54. Early Christians, Gnosticism: MacCulloch 121?
??37; relations with Roman state 156–88; Christian alternative to Rome 165; Severus, to third-century crisis, Mithraism, Mani, Diocletian 166–76. Joseph Patrich, “The Early Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Light of Excavations and Restoration,” in Y. Tsafrir (ed.), Ancient Churches Revealed 101–7. Synagogues: seven synagogues; one remained on Mount Zion in AD 333: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 592–3. Epiphanius quoted: Peters, Jerusalem 125–7. Schäfer 168. Christianity and persecutions and decay of Roman power: Butcher 86–9; revolts against Romans 65–6. Twenty-five changes of emperor in 103 years/Zenobia; Diocletian visits Palestina 286: Avi-Yonah 91–127 and 139–49. Michael Grant, Constantine the Great 126–34. Sartre 339. On Palmyran empire and Zenobia: P. Southern, Empress Zenobia: Palmyra’s Rebel Queen.

  PART THREE: CHRISTIANITY

  1. Constantine. Rise and character: Warren T. Treadgold, A History of Byzantine State and Society (henceforth Treadgold) 30–48. Grant, Constantine 82–4, 105–15; Sun God 134–5; Milvian Bridge vision 140–55; Church 156–86. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (henceforth Herrin) 8–11. Patron gods of Caesar Augustus and Aurelian, smallness of Christian religion, Jews as detestable mob, Jewish history as Roman history: Goodman 539–48. Crispus/Fausta sexual offence: Treadgold 44. Avi-Yonah 159–64. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 247. MacCulloch 189–93. Last years: Grant, Constantine 213. John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries (henceforth Norwich) 1.31–79. Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam 10–11. On Christological debates and shock-troop monks: Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 (henceforth Wickham) 59–67.

  2. Helena in Jerusalem. Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.26–43. Sozomen, Church History 2.1, 2.26. Helena barmaid: Grant, Constantine 16–17; visit 202–5. Zeev Rubin, “The Church of Holy Sepulchre and Conflict between the Sees of Caesarea and Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 2.79–99 on early visit of Constantine’s mother-in-law, Eutropia, in 324. Founding of Church: MacCulloch 193–6. Temple Mount, space and holiness to Jews/defeat of old revelation and victory of new: Oleg Grabar, The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem 28. Goldhill, City of Longing 179. Peters, Jerusalem 131–40. New Jerusalem: Goodman 560–77; Jewish reverence for Jerusalem 576–7. Jews: Avi-Yonah 159–63; small Jewish revolt reported in John Chrysostom 173. Basilicas and ceremonies of Church: MacCulloch 199; Arianism 211–15. Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94; see also Peters, Jerusalem 143–4, including new name for Zion. Confusion about real Zion: 2 Samuel 5.7, Micah 3.12. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

  3. Constantius: Avi-Yonah, 174–205. Julian: Treadgold 59–63. Jews/Temple: Yohanan Levy, “Julian the Apostate and the Building of the Temple,” in Cathedra 3.70–95. Temple: Sozomen, Church History 5.22. Isaiah 66.14. Archeological Park 22. Norwich 339–100. Did Jews remove statues?/Isaiah inscription: Shanks 53–5. Arab revolts of Queen Maria and Saracen War in 375: Butcher 65–6.

  4. The first pilgrims fourth/fifth century/Hun invasion: Zeev Rubin, “Christianity in Byzantine Palestine—Missionary Activity and Religious Coercion,” in Cathedra 3.97–113. Cheating, adultery—Gregory of Nyssa quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 153; prostitutes, actors—Paulinus of Nola quoted 153; Jerome on Paula quoted 152. Jerome: Freeman 274–84, including quotes on sex, virginity and swine. Festivals evolve, cross-biting: Egeria, Pilgrimage to the Holy Places, 50, 57–8, 67–74; and Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94. Jerome on Britons: Barbara W. Tuchman, Bible and Sword (henceforth Tuchman) 23. Byzantine guides to Jerusalem: Breviarius and Topography of the Holy Land, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 154–7. The Jews in Jerusalem/Temple Mount with statues: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94. Mob of wretches: Jerome quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 145. Jewish revolt: Treadgold 56. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 213–14. Shanks 57. Peters, Jerusalem 143–4. Zion: 2 Samuel 5.7, Micah 3.12. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Monasticism: Wickham 59–67.

  5. Eudocia, Barsoma, Christianity in Palestine: Rubin, “Christianity in Byzantine Palestine—Missionary Activity and Religious Coercion,” in Cathedra 3.97–113. Treadgold 89–94. Bahat, Atlas 68–79. Remains of Eudocia’s walls/Siloam Church: Archeological Park 42–4, 137 and 138. Eudocia and Barsoma: Peters, Jerusalem 157–62, including Piacenza Pilgrim seeing her tomb. Christology, monastic shock-troops: Wickham 59–67. Relics: Stephen Runciman, A History of the Crusades (henceforth Runciman) 1.40 and 49. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 25, 37. Christianization and anti-Jewish laws: Theodosius I and II: Avi-Yonah 213–21, 240–5; on Jerome—Jewish worms quoted at 222; end of patriarchate 225–30. Norwich 139–51. Creed and righteous behaviour: Donner, Muhammad 10–17. MacCulloch on monasticism including lollipop stylite pillar: 200–10; on Nestorius/Monophysitism 222–8. End of Hillelite patriarchs: G. Krämer, A History of Palestine (henceforth Krämer) 24. Armenian monks and asceticism: Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, “Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory,” ms.

  6. Justinian—Byzantine climax. Justin and Justinian: Treadgold 174–217. Donner, Muhammad 5–6; apocalyptic vision of the Last Emperor 16; Yemenite Jewish kingdom 31–4; Justinian’s vision 4–17. Wickham 92–5. Vision and building: Herrin 50–7. Gossip: see Procopius, Secret Life. Building: Bahat, Atlas 68–79. Building and pilgrims: Peters, Jerusalem 162–4: Piacenza Pilgrim; “Life of Sabas” by Cyril of Scythopolis; Procopius, “On Buildings,” quoted in Peters, Jerusalem. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 38–40, including Cyril quote; life in Jerusalem 24–38, including concepts of holy space/churches facing or backing onto Temple Mount. Jewish tragedy: Avi-Yonah 221–4 and 232–7, but c. 520 new Sanhedrin chief from Babylon to Tiberias, ruling Jews for seven generations until move to Jerusalem in 638; Justinian anti-Jewish legislation 246–8; Jews in Tiberias in contact with Jewish kings of Yemen 246–8. Treadgold 177. Butcher 383. Temple menorah—Byzantine triumph then to Jerusalem in 534: Perowne, Later Herods 177. Norwich 212. Byzantine style of dress: see Ravenna mosaic and Herrin on Theodora and ladies-in-waiting 67. Houses, mosaics and churches: on Orpheus semipagan/semi-Christian: Ashar Ovadius and Sonia Mucznik, “Orpheus from Jerusalem—Pagan or Christian Image,” in Cathedra 1.152–66. Nea Church: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 34–8; Madaba Map 27. M. Avi-Yonah, “The Madaba Mosaic Map,” Israel Exploration Society. See also article: Martine Meuwese, “Representations of Jerusalem on Medieval Maps and Miniatures,” Eastern Christian Art 2 (2005) 139–48. H. Donner, The Mosaic Map of Madaba: An Introductory Guide. Nea, last column in Russian Compound: Shanks 86–7. Byzantine rich houses south and west of Temple Mount: Archeological Park 147 and 32–3; extended Cardo 10 and 140; bathhouses near Jaffa Gate 125; Nea 81; monks in First Temple Jewish tombs 39. Burial with bells: see Rockefeller Museum. Jerusalem chariot-racing: Yaron Dan, “Circus Factions in Byzantine Palestine,” in Cathedra 1.105–19. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

  7. Persian invasion. The Persian general’s full name was Razmiozan, known as Farrokhan Shahrbaraz—the Royal Boar. Justin II to Phocas—decline: Treadgold 218–41. Sassanian king, state and religion: Donner, Muhammad 17–27. Avi-Yonah, 241, 254–65, including Midrash of Elijah and 20,000 Jewish soldiers quoting Eutychius; Salvation Midrash/Book of Zerubbabel, Nehemiah stories 265–8; Jews expelled 269–70. Sebeos, Histoire d’Héraclius 63–71. See also: A. Courret, La Prise de Jérusalem par les Perses; and Norwich 279–91. Arab tribes: Butcher 66–72. Jerusalem chariot-racing: Dan, “Circus Factions in Byzantine Palestine,” in Cathedra 1.105–19.

  Sassanids rise: Farrokh 178–90; Khusrau II 247–61. Sassanians before the Arab conquest: Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests 98–111.

  Destruction of Jerusalem: F. Conybeare, “Antiochus Strategos: Account of the Sack of Jerusalem,” English Historical Review 25 (1910) 502–16. City destroyed: Bahat, Atlas 78–9. Bones of monks in Monastery of St. Onufrius: Archeological Park 137. Jewish role and Lion’s Cemetery where martyrs buried in Mamilla: J. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 57 and 241. Dan, “Circus Factions in Byzantine Palest
ine,” in Cathedra 1.105–19, inscription on Blues. Massacre myths: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 36–43. Traces of a Jewish building on Temple Mount, seventh century but dating from Persian or early Islamic period: Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 99.

  8. Heraclius: this is based on Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium. Treadgold 287–303. Farrokh 256–61. Butcher 76–8. Herrin 84–6. Norwich 291–302. Entering Jerusalem: Conybeare, “Antiochus Strategos” 502–16. Defeated Romans: Koran (trans. M.A.S. Abdel Haleem) 30.1–5. Golden Gate—Byzantine or Umayyad: Bahat, Atlas 78–9. Goldhill, City of Longing 126. Heraclius and Jews, Benjamin of Tiberias: Avi-Yonah 260–76. First Crusader: Runciman 1.10–13. Heraclius in Jerusalem: Abu Sufyan’s memory: Kennedy, Conquests 74; Palestine in decline 31–2. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Heraclius and campaigns: Donner, Muhammad 17–27; Last Emperor 17–18. Wickham 256–61.

  PART FOUR: ISLAM

  1. Muhammad: Arabia before Prophet: this is based on the following: Koran; Ibn Ishaq, Life of Muhammad; Al-Tabari, Tarikh: The History of al-Tabari. Analysis and narrative—for conventional approach: W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman; Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. For new analysis: Donner, Muhammad; F. E. Peters, Muhammad and Jesus, Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives.

  Apocalypse in Koran/Last Days/The Hour: Hour is near: Koran 33.63, 47.18. Hour nigh: Koran 54.1. Koran: Introduction ix–xxxvi. Isra and Miraj: Koran 17.1, 17.60, 53.1–18, 81.19 and 25. Change of qibla: Koran 2.142–50; Solomon and djinns in temple: Koran 34.13. Jewish sins and Nebachadnezzar fall of Temple: Koran 17.4–7. Jihad/killing/sword verse/People of the Book/dhimmi: Koran 16.125, 4.72–4, 9.38–9, 9.5, 9.29; no compulsion in religion 2.256, 3.3–4, 5.68, 3.64, 29.46. Donner, Muhammad 27–38; life and rise of Muhammad and limits of his biography 39–50; limits of sources, quotes of Thomas the Presbyter 50–7; beliefs of early Islam, Donner’s theory of Believers vs. Muslims and number of mentions in Koran: 57–61; rituals 61–9; ecumenism of early Believers especially attitude to Jews and the umma document 72–4; Prophet and Apocalypse 78–82; militant jihad 83–6; ecumenical openness to Jews and Christians—quotations from Donner 87–9; Abu Sufyan and Meccan elite co-opted 92–7.