The Lost Peace

  Smith, Jean Edward. FDR. New York: Random House, 2007.

  Smith, Walter Bedell. Moscow Mission, 1946–1949. London: Heinemann, 1950.

  Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War. New York: W. W. Norton, 1965.

  Steel, Ronald. Walter Lippmann and the American Century. Boston: Little, Brown, 1980.

  Stevenson, William. A Man Called Intrepid. New York: Lyons Press, 2000.

  Stueck, William. The Korean War: An International History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995.

  Suh, Dae-Sook. Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

  Tanaka, Yuki, and Marilyn Young, eds. Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History. New York: New Press, 2009.

  Taylor, A. J. P., Robert Rhodes James, and J. H. Plumb. Churchill: Four Faces and the Man. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1968.

  Taubman, William. Stalin’s American Policy: From Entente to Détente to Cold War. New York: W. W. Norton, 1982.

  Thompson, Nicholas. The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War. New York: Henry Holt, 2009.

  Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America. 2 vols. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945.

  Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire. New York: Random House, 1970.

  Truman, Harry S. Memoirs. Vol. 1, Year of Decisions. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday, 1955.

  ——. Memoirs. Vol. 2, Years of Trial and Hope. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1956.

  Tuchman, Barbara W. Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–1945. New York: Macmillan, 1971.

  Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1967. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968.

  ——. The Rivals: America and Russia since World War II. New York: Viking, 1971.

  U.S. Department of State. The China White Paper: August 1949. 2 vols. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967.

  ——. Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1955.

  ——. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946: Eastern Europe. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.

  Werth, Alexander. Russia at War, 1941–1945. New York: Avon Books, 1964.

  Williams, William Appleman, Thomas McCormick, Lloyd Gardner, and Walter LaFeber, eds. America in Vietnam: A Documentary History. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985.

  Wolpert, Stanley. Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.

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  Yergin, Daniel. Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1977.

  Zubok, Vladislav M. A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union from Stalin to Gorbachev. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.

  Zubok, Vladislav M., and Constantine Pleshakov. Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996.

  INDEX

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  Acheson, Dean, 185, 231, 249, 272–75, 281, 299, 346; appointed secretary of state, 272, 274–75; background of, 272; China and, 163, 284–88; Greek Communist uprising and, 231; H-bomb development and, 294–95, 296; Hiss affair and, 274, 290, 292; international control of atomic weapons and, 198–200, 201; Korean War and, 310, 312, 313–14, 317, 322, 330, 332, 354; McCarthyism and, 290–92; on national security concerns in Asia, 303–4, 309, 310; Roosevelt’s conflict with, 272–73; Truman’s relationship with, 273–74

  Afghanistan, 365

  African Americans, 219, 266–67

  Air Force, U.S., 176, 252, 257, 344–45

  Air Force Department, U.S., 248

  Albania, 232

  Algeria, 275, 365

  Allende, Salvador, 365

  Allied Control Council for Japan, 135, 158

  Amerasia investigation, 224–25

  American Society of Newspaper Editors, 42, 292, 351

  anticommunism, 106, 163, 221–27, 236–37, 282–83; Acheson’s confirmation hearings and, 274–75; of Churchill, 16, 18–19, 21, 26; Churchill’s 1946 speeches on Soviet threat and, 203–8, 211–13, 218; congressional elections of 1946 and, 221–23, 224, 226; European defensive alliances and, 192–93, 255, 258, 259, 260, 275–77 (see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization); fear of Communist penetration of government and, 163, 233–34, 290–93, 348; of Hitler, 66, 74, 76, 79, 80; McCarthy and, 290–93, 300, 347–48; of Nixon, 221–22, 346, 368; Red scare of 1919–20 and, 26; Stalin’s concern about postwar resurgence of, 66; Truman’s apocalyptic rhetoric and, 231–35, 251–52, 255–56; Truman’s standing as president and, 219–20, 224, 225–26; U.S. opinion surveys and, 218, 316–17

  anti-Semitism: of Hitler, 5, 72–73, 74, 80; of Stalin, 215, 356–57. See also Holocaust

  appeasement: Byrnes accused of, 134, 155–57; “lessons” of, applied to postwar circumstances, 125, 131, 258–59, 299–300, 312; Munich Pact and, 19, 75, 297, 312

  Arab League, 270

  Arabs, 233; Palestine issue and, 172–78, 270. See also Palestine

  Ardennes offensive (1944), 79

  Argentina, 103

  Armenia, 158

  Army Department, U.S., 148, 248

  Arnold, Matthew, 179

  Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 198–202, 294; Acheson-Lilienthal committee and, 198–200; Baruch’s plan for, 201–2

  atomic weapons, 62, 101, 119–33, 134, 149, 184, 193–202, 216, 226, 241, 258, 259–60, 267, 283, 293–98, 336, 345, 354, 365, 368–69; alert of 1973 and, 196; atomic scientists’ concerns about, 130, 194, 197–98; beginning of Cold War and, 122–24; Byrnes’s information-sharing proposal and, 155–57; Churchill’s readiness to fight Soviet Union with, 212; Cuban missile crisis and, 132, 194–95, 365, 366–67; espionage and, 122, 187–88, 199, 278, 313, 315; first successful test of, 119–20; future dangers posed by, 120–21, 193–200; H-bomb and, 127, 293–96, 300, 314–15, 317; information about, withheld from Soviets, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 121, 122–24, 197; international control over, 130, 131, 133, 145, 156, 194, 197, 198–202; Japan bombed with, 4, 7, 119, 120, 121, 125–29, 130–31, 197, 343; Kennan’s views on, 132–33, 194; Korean War and, 194, 326, 327, 329–30, 339, 342, 350, 355; Manhattan Project and, 35–36, 119–20, 122, 130, 198; possible uses of, in 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, 194–95; proliferation of, 131, 194; Soviet development of, 122, 131, 133, 182, 187–88, 212, 243, 277–79, 294–98, 309, 313, 314–15, 322; Truman kept in dark about, 68–69, 71; Truman’s revelation to Stalin about, 121–24; U.S. arsenal of, 200, 280, 293, 294, 299, 317, 328; U.S. monopoly on, 131, 133, 182, 199–200, 202, 205, 206; U.S. public opinion on, 145, 193–94, 197, 316–17, 329; in U.S. planning for all-out war with Soviet Union, 252. See also nuclear arms race

  Attlee, Clement, 116–17, 118, 156, 169

  Australia, 84, 85, 86, 318

  Austria, 5, 58, 108, 251

  Baku oil fields, 157

  Balfour Declaration (1917), 172, 173

  Balkans, 230, 365; fight against Nazis in, 45–46; postwar fate of, 22–23, 44, 53, 54, 108, 116, 229, 243. See also specific nations

  Baltic states, 5; postwar fate of, 21, 27, 40, 45, 49, 52, 243

  Bao Dai, 359

  Baruch, Bernard, 201–2

  Bataan Death March (1942), 4

  Battle of the Bulge (1944), 55, 58

  Battle of the Coral Sea (1942), 86

  Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), 365

  BBC, 78–79

  Belarus (White Russia), 99, 103

  Belgium, 5, 192, 258; fi
ghting in, 55, 58, 79

  Beneš, Edvard, 256

  Beria, Lavrenty, 54, 150, 278, 355, 357

  Berle, Adolf, Jr., 60, 274

  Berlin, 339; devastation in, 112, 127; Soviet advance on, 58, 79, 81, 82, 122, 181; Soviet blockade of (1948), 259–61, 263, 264, 267, 271, 276, 279, 280, 300, 301

  Bevin, Ernest, 117, 237, 240, 255, 281

  Bidault, Georges, 237, 240

  biological warfare, 343

  Bismarck, Otto von, 125

  Boer War, 17, 367

  Bohlen, Charles, 110, 115

  Bohr, Niels, 23, 197

  Bolshevik Party, 31–32

  Bolshevik revolution, 181

  Bradley, Omar, 324, 328, 331

  Brecht, Bertolt, 301

  Bretton Woods conference (1944), 238

  Brezhnev, Leonid, 153

  British Security Coordination (BSC), 213

  Brooke, Sir Alan, 109

  Brussels Pact, 258, 259, 260

  B-29 Superfortress, 88, 89

  Bulganin, Mikhail, 150

  Bulgaria, 22, 116, 155, 158, 232, 235, 257, 262

  Bullitt, William C., 185–86

  Bundy, McGeorge, 11–12

  Burke, Edmund, 241

  Burma, 83

  Bush, George H. W., 369

  Bush, George W., 315, 316, 366, 369

  Bush, Vannevar, 23–24, 198

  Butler, Hugh, 291, 299

  Butterfield, Herbert, 171–72

  Byrnes, James, 71, 148–49, 158, 201; inclined to compromise with Soviets, 149, 153–57; Kennan’s critique of, 154–55; at London conference of 1945, 133–34, 153–54; at Moscow conference of 1945, 154–56; Truman’s appointment of, 110–11; Truman’s disagreements with, 155–56, 157, 271

  Cambodia, 315, 316, 361, 365. See also Indochina

  Camp David peace accords (1978), 175

  Canada, Soviet spy ring in, 187–88, 199

  Canfil, Fred, 111

  capitalism, 67, 291; ideological struggle of communism vs., 66, 117, 123–25, 133, 171–72, 181–87, 188–89, 203, 214, 215, 240; Stalin’s speculation on war among proponents of, 279–80; two world wars deemed inevitable result of, 182–83, 184

  Caroline Islands, 86

  Carter, Jimmy, 175

  Casablanca conference (1943), 37–38, 42

  Castro, Fidel, 365

  CBI (China, Burma, and India) area, 90–91

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 248–49, 257, 365, 387n

  Chamberlain, Neville, 19, 297, 312

  Chambers, Whittaker, 268, 274

  Chiang, Mme., 91–92

  Chiang Kai-shek, 89–94, 364; civil war and, 90, 159, 160, 236; Communist attack on Taiwan and, 287–88, 301, 304, 310, 311–12, 313, 330; Communist defeat of, 283–87, 290; corrupt and ineffective regime of, 92, 143, 144, 159, 167, 284–85; MacArthur’s public statement of support for, 318–19; Nationalist-Communist coalition government and, 94, 142–45, 159, 166–67, 226; planning of postwar arrangements and, 93–94, 142; retaking of mainland suggested for, 318–19, 322, 330, 331, 350; Roosevelt sympathetic toward, 92–93; Stalin’s show of support for, 160, 164; U.S. support for, 89–90, 144–45, 161, 163, 165, 236, 283, 285, 318–19; war effort against Japan and, 89–91, 93–94

  Chicago Tribune, 333

  Chile, 365

  China, 7, 40, 89–94, 95, 113, 119, 129, 138, 142–45, 159–68, 171, 193, 217, 227, 283–90, 301, 302, 303, 317, 365; Amerasia investigation and, 224–25; attack on Taiwan Nationalists by, 287–88, 301, 304, 310, 311–12, 313, 330; Big Four status of, 89–90, 126; civil war in, 90, 94, 143, 145, 159, 160, 162, 167, 225, 235–36, 275, 283–87, 310; coalition government attempted in, 94, 142–45, 155, 159, 161–63, 165–67, 226, 284–85; Communist victory in, 283–87, 290, 309, 322, 360; Hurley’s criticism of policy toward, 160–61, 162, 287; Japanese aggression and occupation in, 3–4, 88, 89–90, 143, 159, 171; Korean War and, 168, 194, 304, 309–11, 315, 318, 320–32, 336–46, 349–51, 353, 354–55, 359, 361; lost opportunities for U.S. cooperation with, 164–65, 168, 285–86; MacArthur’s provocative statements on, 318–19, 330–32, 336; Marshall’s mission in, 161–63, 165–66, 235–36, 283; Nixon and Kissinger’s initiative toward, 367–68; as nuclear power, 296; outcry over “loss” of, 284, 290, 304, 313, 346, 348; planning of postwar arrangements and, 90, 93–94, 97, 142, 225, 226; PRC ( People’s Republic of China) establishment and, 283, 286, 287–88; Soviet relations with, 93, 159–60, 163–65, 168, 236, 285, 286, 287, 288–89, 310, 315, 322, 368; State Department accused of supporting Communists in, 160–61, 287, 290; suggestions for Chiang’s retaking of, 318–19, 322, 330, 331, 350; U.S. public opinion on, 287; U.S. relations with Communist regime in, 285–88, 289, 367–68; Vietnamese independence movement and, 141, 359, 361, 362; white paper explaining U.S. policy toward, 284–85, 286–87

  Chinese Communist Party, 141, 142, 143–44, 159, 163, 164, 165, 167

  Chou En-lai, 144, 163–64, 167, 286, 345

  Churchill, Sarah, 55–56, 61

  Churchill, Winston, 1, 6–7, 8, 16–24, 30, 149, 211–13, 228, 362; on American naiveté about China, 90; anticommunism of, 16, 18–19, 21, 26; atomic weapons and, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 120, 121–24, 127–28, 197, 200; boyhood and education of, 16–17, 24; Britain prodded toward understanding of Soviet dangers by, 211–13; conduct of war in Europe and, 19–21, 28, 29, 31, 34–39, 40–41, 44, 45–46, 51, 54, 55, 81; de Gaulle’s relations with, 42–43; depressions of, 18, 19, 20, 21; early career and rise to power of, 17–20, 25–26; Indian independence and, 169; “iron curtain” coined by, 116, 205–6; Manhattan Project and, 35–36; nation rallied by, 20–21; outbreak of World War II and, 19; Pacific War and, 83, 127–28; personal nature of, 16, 20–21, 34; planning of postwar arrangements and, 15–16, 21–24, 43–49, 51–61, 64, 65–67, 71, 97–98, 99, 107–18, 120, 121–22, 129–30, 141, 229; Roosevelt’s death and, 67, 68, 71; Soviet alliance and, 19, 21, 28, 29; Stalin’s 1942 meeting with, 31, 34–36; toppling of government of, 116–18; Truman as viewed by, 68; Truman’s personal rapport with, 110, 111–13; UN founding and, 46, 49, 61, 97–98, 99; Westminster College speech of (Iron Curtain speech; 1946), 203–8, 212–13, 218

  civil rights, 266–67

  Clark, Mark, 349, 351

  class struggles, 214, 219

  Clay, Lucius, 256–57

  Clemenceau, Georges, 3

  Clifford, Clark, 249, 266, 268–69, 270

  Cold War: Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech and, 203–8; lengthy standoff in, 301; Truman’s declaration of, 231–35. See also specific topics

  Cold War, The (Lippmann), 246–47

  colonialism: Indian independence and, 168–72; Indochina and, 140–42, 358–62; postwar order and, 42, 43, 99

  Comintern (Communist International), 27, 47, 52

  communism, 82, 206, 248, 280, 361; domestic, as threat to U.S., 268; economic strategy against spread of, 238–42, 247 (see also Marshall Plan); ideological struggle of capitalism vs., 66, 117, 123–25, 133, 171–72, 181–87, 188–89, 203, 214, 215, 240; State Department accused of support for, 160–61, 287, 290. See also anticommunism

  Communist parties: Chinese and Soviet rivalry for control of, 159; European vulnerability to, 238, 240, 252; Stalin’s promotion of, 64, 108. See also specific national parties

  Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 83, 141, 181, 185, 215; Stalin’s views on Jewish leaders in, 215. See also Politburo

  Communist Party of the United States of America, 26–27, 163, 218, 317

  Compton, Karl T., 293

  Conant, James, 198, 294

  concentration camps, 78–79

  Congress, U.S., 149, 177, 259, 303; authorization of military actions by, 315– 16, 329; civil rights legislation and, 267; control of atomic energy and, 198, 199, 201; House Un-American Activities Committee, 163, 274; MacArthur’s appearance before joint session of, 334–35; Marshall Plan and, 238; military appropriations and, 277–78, 299; National Security Act of 1947 and, 248–49; Truman’s dealings with opposition in, 228; Trum
an’s March 1946 speech to, 231–32. See also Senate, U.S.

  congressional elections of 1946, 175, 187, 220, 224, 266, 273; Kennedy’s victory in, 222–23, 226; McCarthy’s victory in, 224; Nixon’s victory in, 221–22, 223

  congressional elections of 1948, 223

  congressional elections of 1950, 292, 323

  Connally, John, 195

  Connally, Tom, 156, 310

  containment policy, 252, 265, 267, 332, 346, 351; Kennan’s X article and, 244–48

  Council of Foreign Ministers: 1945 London conference of, 133–34, 153–54; 1945 Moscow conference of, 154–56; 1947 London conference of, 253–55; 1947 Moscow conference of, 235, 237–38; 1949 Paris conference of, 276, 280–81

  Council on Foreign Relations, 247

  covert activities, 249, 317

  Cuba, Bay of Pigs invasion in (1961), 365

  Cuban missile crisis (1962), 132, 194–95, 365, 366–67

  Czechoslovakia, 19, 75, 253; Communist coup in (1948), 256–57, 263, 264, 267, 268, 271, 301; Soviet conquest of, 53, 81, 82

  Dakar, 43

  Daladier, Edouard, 297

  Dardanelles, 158

  Darfur, 365

  Darien, 93, 288

  Darlan, Jean, 38

  Davies, Joseph E., 82, 149

  D-Day invasion (1944), 51, 54, 62, 77, 162

  Defense Department, U.S., creation of secretary of defense post and, 248, 250

  de Gaulle, Charles, 33, 41–43, 146–47, 364; Indochina and, 140, 141, 358, 362; Stalin as viewed by, 63

  democracy, 6, 50, 63, 85, 106, 142, 145, 147, 227, 232, 237, 249, 251, 269, 290, 308, 362, 366; Japan transformed into, 135, 136, 137; weakness in making of foreign policy ascribed to, 226–27

  Democratic Party, 216, 269, 274, 291, 295, 313, 349; Communist sympathies ascribed to, 219–20, 278, 291, 322, 346–47; electoral politics and, 51, 70–71, 163, 220, 221, 222–23, 226, 233–34, 260, 266, 273, 344

  Depression, Great, 25, 26, 73, 75, 117, 182, 189, 272

  détente, 153, 168, 192, 193

  Dewey, Thomas E., 51, 134, 163, 177, 266, 269

  Dien Bien Phu, battle of (1954), 194

  Dies, Martin, 163

  Djilas, Milovan, 108, 235

  Dobrynin, Anatoly, 261

  Doolittle, Jimmy, 84, 85