The Lost Peace

  Mussolini, Benito, 18, 37, 38, 44

  Nagasaki bombing (1945), 127–28

  National Security Act (1947), 248–49, 251

  National Security Council (NSC), 248, 249, 320, 360, 387n

  National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68), 298–300, 317, 341

  National Socialism (Nazism), 1, 5, 8, 73, 163

  National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party), 74, 75

  Navy Department, U.S., 137, 148, 199, 230, 248, 250

  Nazi Germany, 2–3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 66, 88, 171, 172, 191, 299; anti- Semitism and persecution of Jews in, 72–73, 74, 80, 172, 173, 174, 176 (see also Holocaust); anti-Soviet propaganda of, 46, 54; Soviet Union compared to, 256, 257–59, 264, 312. See also Hitler, Adolf; World War II

  Nehru, Jawaharlal, 170–71

  Netherlands, 5, 192, 258, 275, 276

  New Britain, 86

  New Deal, 26, 51, 163, 220, 221, 346

  New Guinea, 84, 86, 223

  New Jersey Bell, 198

  New York Times, 57–58, 245

  Nicaragua, 366

  Nietzsche, Friedrich, 211, 241

  “Night of the Murdered Poets,” 356–57

  Nitze, Paul, 185; NSC-68 and, 298–99

  Nixon, Richard M., 196, 315, 316, 365, 367–69; elected to Congress, 221–22, 223; opening of relations with China and, 367–68; as vicepresidential candidate, 346

  NKVD (Soviet secret police), 4, 82, 113

  North Africa, 41, 230, 275, 277; Allied invasion of, 30, 34, 36, 38, 62

  North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 280, 281, 304, 321, 328, 352, 353; creation of, 192–93, 275–77, 301

  North Korea, 296, 302–46, 349–55, 367; nature of Kim’s regime in, 304–6, 307–8; nuclear weapons sought by, 202, 254, 365; Soviet troops stationed in, 139, 159, 302–3. See also Korea; Korean War

  North Vietnam, 308

  Novikov, Nikolai, 215–17, 229–30

  nuclear arms race, 155, 193, 216, 293; attempts at prevention of, 196–202, 295; beginning of, 130–33; Eisenhower’s urging of end to, 351; H-bomb development and, 293–96; lack of advantage provided by expanded arsenals in, 195–96; possible alternative to, 296–97. See also atomic weapons

  Office of Strategic Ser vices (OSS), 141

  oil, 157, 174, 175–76

  Okinawa, 87, 139, 303

  O’Neill, Thomas “Tip,” 223

  One World (Willkie), 40

  Operation Borodino, 122

  Operation Unthinkable, 109

  Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 107, 120, 130, 198, 199–200, 243, 294

  Orwell, George, 271

  Ottoman Empire, 172, 174

  Oumansky, Constantine, 29

  Outer Mongolia, 160

  Oxenstierna, Count, 363

  pacificism, 3, 18

  Pacific War, 3, 4–5, 8–9, 36, 38, 39, 46, 49, 55, 57, 59, 83–94, 95, 107, 110, 118–19, 169, 225, 358; air raids on Japanese cities in, 85, 88–89, 127; atomic bombings of Japan in, 4, 7, 119, 120, 121, 125–29, 130–31, 197, 343; China’s role in, 89–94, 284; defense of home islands in, 87; early Allied defeats in, 83–84; ending of, 125–29; Indochina and, 141–42; Japanese surrender ceremony in, 8–9, 135; Johnson’s participation in, 223; Kim Il Sung’s experiences in, 304–5; MacArthur’s performance in, 84–85, 318; Pacific Island campaigns in, 86–87, 93, 129; Pearl Harbor attack in, 29, 77, 88, 96, 176, 257; possible invasion of Japanese home islands in, 39, 93, 118–19, 127, 128, 226; Soviet entry into, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 101, 113, 115, 118–19, 135, 226, 284; Tojo as leading villain in, 87–88; unsuccessful treaty negotiations and, 133–36, 153–54; U.S.–Japan peace agreement and, 301–2, 309, 328, 337, 339, 355

  Pakistan, 170, 171, 296, 365

  Palaus, 86

  Palestine, 172–78, 230; agreements of early twentieth century on, 172–73, 174; Jewish refuge in Germany as alternative to, 173–74; Nazi persecution of Jews and, 172, 173, 174, 176; partitioned into Arab and Jewish states, 177–78; peacekeeping forces in, 176; Truman’s sympathy for Jewish interests in, 174–78, 269–70

  Palestinians, continuing Israeli conflict with, 365

  Paris conference (1949), 276, 280–81

  Patton, George C., 81, 84

  peaceful coexistence, 355

  peace movements, 3, 18, 279

  Pearl Harbor attack (1941), 29, 77, 88, 96, 176, 257

  Pearson, Drew, 188

  Pendergast, Tom, 115

  percentages agreement, 22, 53, 229

  Perkins, Frances, 27, 48–49

  Pétain, Henri Philippe, 41

  Philippines, 84, 85, 303, 318

  Plato, 242, 370

  Point Four, 275

  Poland, 3, 5, 27, 174, 257; demise of resistance fighters in, 51, 54; German conquest of, 19, 20, 75; postwar fate of, 4, 21, 40, 45, 51, 52–53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 98, 100, 107, 108, 113, 116; pro-Communist government installed in, 101; Soviet execution of officers in, 4, 39, 48; Soviet seizure of eastern portions of, 27, 39, 46; in UN, 103

  Politburo, 4, 150, 151, 153, 183–84, 188, 213, 261, 268, 274–75, 357, 364

  Potsdam conference (1945), 69, 107–18, 125, 126, 133, 141, 149, 158, 343; appeasement myth and, 225–26; Churchill and Truman’s meeting before, 109, 111–12; circumstances leading to, 107–9; first successful atomic test and, 119–24; Soviet power on display at, 113–14; toppling of Churchill government during, 116–18; Truman as chairman at, 112; Truman’s entourage at, 110–11; Truman’s rapport with Stalin at, 114–16

  Prague, Soviet advance on, 81, 82

  Pravda, 207, 254

  presidential election of 1944, 50–51, 70–71

  presidential election of 1948, 147, 175, 176, 177, 221, 228, 265–70, 273

  presidential election of 1952, 346–49; Eisenhower’s embrace of McCarthy in, 348–49; Korean War and, 194, 313, 346, 348–49; Nixon’s staunch anticommunism in, 346

  presidential election of 1964, 195

  Progressive Party, 268, 269

  psychological warfare, 317

  Pyle, Ernie, 5

  Quebec conference (1943), 86

  Quebec conference (1944), 23, 51

  race discrimination, 219, 266–67

  Rankin, John, 82

  “Rape of Nanking,” 3–4

  Reagan, Ronald, 298, 365–66

  Republic, The (Plato), 242

  Republican Party, 26, 157, 231, 260, 268, 269, 287, 291, 296, 313, 318, 323, 334, 350, 352; electoral politics and, 51, 163, 195, 220, 221–22, 226, 228, 234, 266, 292, 346–49

  Rhee, Syngman, 302, 304, 306–9, 310, 311, 336, 349, 364; attacks on North Korean forces initiated by, 308–9; background and education of, 306–7; early political career of, 307; repressive regime of, 307, 308–9; truce opposed by, 352–53

  Ridgway, Matthew, 328, 329, 343

  Robertson, Walter S., 165–66

  Romania, 116

  Roosevelt, Eleanor, 67, 92, 110, 111, 156

  Roosevelt, Elliott, 48

  Roosevelt, Franklin, 1, 8, 24–30, 35, 36, 70, 103, 108, 110–11, 112, 149, 156, 162, 163, 215, 217, 221, 265, 368; Acheson’s conflict with, 272–73; anti-Communist attack on, 225–26; atomic weapons and, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 68–69, 121, 123, 128, 197; boyhood and education of, 24–25; China and, 89–94, 142, 143, 144, 159, 168; conduct of war in Europe and, 28–30, 36–41, 44, 45–46, 51, 54, 64–65, 81; death of, 66–67, 68–69, 71, 72, 100, 216; de Gaulle’s relations with, 41–42; deteriorating health of, 50–51, 58, 59–60, 68; early career and rise to power of, 25–26; fourth presidential term of, 50–51; Indochina and, 43, 140; MacArthur’s conflict with, 85; manipulation of public opinion by, 227; Pacific War and, 84, 85, 113, 125, 128; personal nature of, 24–25, 34, 69, 272–73; planning of postwar arrangements and, 15–16, 23–24, 40–52, 54–60, 64–67, 68–69, 71, 81–82, 90, 93–94, 96–100, 118, 129–30, 142, 225–26; poliomyelitis and disability of, 25–26, 41, 50; Soviet threat as viewed by, 24, 26–28; Stalin’s relationship with, 45, 48–49, 58, 62, 6
7, 102–3, 104, 217, 336; Truman’s anxiety about assuming place of, 109–10; Truman’s dealings with, 68–69; UN founding and, 46, 49, 51, 52, 96–100

  Roosevelt, Theodore, 25, 26

  Rosenman, Sam, 60

  Ross, Charlie, 111

  Rumania, 22, 155, 257

  Rusk, Dean, 324

  Russia: Bolshevik revolution in, 181; civil war between Red and White Russians in, 18, 32, 108. See also Soviet Union; Stalin, Joseph

  Russian Orthodox Church, 47

  Rwanda, 365

  Saddam Hussein, 366, 369

  Saipan, 88

  Sakhalin, 93

  San Francisco conference (1945), 64, 97–105

  Senate, U.S., 156, 235, 260, 265; Acheson’s confirmation hearings in, 274–75; MacArthur’s removal and, 331, 335–36; McCarthyism and, 290–93

  September 11, 2001, attacks, 196

  Seventh Fleet, 311, 330, 337, 350

  Siberia, 320, 344

  Sicily, Allied attack on, 37–38, 44

  Singapore, 83–84

  Sinkiang, 160

  Sino-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1945), 160, 164

  Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance (1950), 288–89, 315

  Smith, Al, 25

  Smith, Walter Bedell, 184, 255

  Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 83

  Solarz, Stephen J., 306

  Solomon Islands, 84, 86

  “Sources of Soviet Conduct, The” (Kennan), 244–48

  South Africa, Boer War in, 17, 367

  Southeast Asia. See Indochina

  South Korea, 302–46, 330, 349–55, 354; divisive factionalism in, 307; Hodge’s administration of, 139; nature of Rhee’s regime in, 306–8; U.S. military presence in, 302–3; U.S. mutual defense treaty with, 352. See also Korea; Korean War

  Soviet Union, 3, 4, 8, 227, 317, 329, 365, 370; AEC deliberations and, 201–2; antireligion policy in, 27, 47; argument for all-out mobilization just short of war against (NSC-68), 298–300; atomic weapons program of, 122, 131, 133, 182, 187–88, 212, 243, 277–79, 294–98, 309, 313, 314–15, 322; Berlin blockaded by (1948), 259–61, 263, 264, 267, 271, 276, 279, 280, 300, 301; British alliance with, 19, 21; British plan of attack against, 109; Byrnes’s advocacy of compromise with, 149; China and, 93, 142, 143, 144, 159–60, 161, 163–65, 168, 236, 285, 286, 287, 288–89, 310, 315, 322, 368; Churchill’s speeches on threat posed by, 203–8, 211–13, 218; collapse collapse of communism in, 106; concern over “alien influences” in, 180, 181, 186–87, 215, 240; containment of, as U.S. policy goal, 244–48 (see also containment policy); Czech coup and, 256–57, 268; Dardanelles and, 158; devastation in, 62, 95, 105, 243; doctors’ plot alleged in, 356, 357; Eastern Europe and (see Eastern Europe); elimination of military chiefs in, 181; entry of, into war against Japan, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 101, 113, 115, 118–19, 135, 226, 284; ethnic minorities repressed in, 54; European defensive alliances against, 192–93, 255, 258, 259, 260, 275–77 (see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization); famines in, 214; German resurgence feared by, 123, 184, 216, 238, 246, 260, 261, 276, 277, 281; Germany’s postwar arrangements and, 55, 56, 57, 59, 116, 235, 237–38, 253–55, 259–61, 280–81; Greek Communist uprising and, 229–33; H-bomb and, 293–94; information about atomic weapons withheld from, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 121, 122–24, 197; Iranian oil fields and, 157; Kennan’s February 1946 “Long Telegram” on, 190–92, 216; Kennan’s May 1945 assessment of, 181, 189–90; Kennan’s X article on, 244–48; Korean War and, 302–6, 309–11, 312, 314–15, 317, 320–21, 324, 325, 326–27, 328, 337, 338–39, 342, 343–44, 345, 349, 355, 361; living standards in, 63, 180, 181, 188, 240; Marshall Plan and, 239, 240, 241–42; Middle East and, 175, 176, 178, 196; military buildup in, 105–6, 189; Nazi Germany analogies and, 256, 257–59, 264, 276, 312; North Korea occupied by, 139; Novikov’s cable on U.S. threat to, 215–17; participation in international financial institutions refused by, 190; postwar dangers as perceived by, 183–85, 241–44; postwar reconstruction in, 54, 62, 101, 138, 179–80, 188, 214; prisoners of war from, 63, 180, 340; propaganda of, 211, 251, 254, 279–80, 281; public opinion polls in, 82–83; Roosevelt’s views on threat posed by, 24, 26–28; superior ground forces of, 296; unprepared to begin offensive war against West, 243, 258, 276, 312; U.S. lend-lease shipments to, 104, 182; U.S. military advantage over, 52, 124, 131, 199–200, 280, 366; U.S. planning for all-out war against, 252; U.S. public opinion on, 82, 187, 188, 206, 218, 257, 338–39; U.S. trade with, 26, 27, 28; Vietnamese independence movement and, 359, 361, 362. See also Stalin, Joseph; World War II

  Spaatz, Carl, 252

  Spain, fascism in, 236

  Spanish Civil War (1936–39), 3, 18–19

  Speer, Albert, 72

  spheres of influence, 57, 216; percentages agreement and, 22, 53, 229

  Stalin, Joseph, 4, 9, 10, 21, 31–41, 149–54, 179–87, 193, 211, 236, 250, 268, 292, 299, 343–44, 355–58, 363, 364, 365; absolute power within Soviet Union maintained by, 31–32, 47, 53–54, 62–63, 181, 185, 189, 213, 214–15, 261–62, 289, 311, 315, 355–58; appeasement myth of Yalta and Potsdam and, 225; atomic weapons and, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 101, 121–24, 130–31, 182, 200, 278, 297–98; background of, 32; Berlin blockade and, 260–61, 263, 276, 279, 300, 301; China and, 93–94, 159–60, 163–64, 168, 285, 288–89; Churchill’s 1942 meeting with, 31, 34–36; Churchill’s Westminster College speech and, 207–8; conduct of war in Europe and, 29–30, 31, 34–41, 44, 45–46, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 62, 64–65, 81; Czech coup and, 256, 257; Dardanelles and, 158; death of, 192, 355, 357; de Gaulle’s evaluation of, 63; ending of Pacific War and, 125, 128, 130–31; entry into war against Japan and, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 113, 115, 118–19; exemplary public demeanor of, 115; February 9, 1946, speech of, 182–86, 198–99, 202–3; foreign policy intentions of, at close of war, 149–50; future dangers expounded by, 183–87, 202–3; Greek Communist uprising and, 229, 232, 234–35; heart attack and subsequent health problems of, 150, 261; Hitler analogies and, 256, 257–59, 264, 276, 280, 300, 312; Hitler’s nonaggression pact with, 19, 21, 27, 28, 47, 153, 311; ideological conflict between communism and capitalism and, 66, 117, 123–25, 181–87, 188–89, 203, 214, 215, 240; Jews distrusted by, 215, 356–57; Kennan’s evaluation of, 152–53; Korean War and, 309, 310, 311, 314–15, 321, 326–27, 345, 355, 357; Marshall Plan and, 240; personal nature of, 31–34, 65, 115, 150–52, 203, 305–6, 356; planning of postwar arrangements and, 15–16, 21–24, 40, 43–49, 51–67, 71, 93–94, 97–104, 107–18, 123, 129–30, 135, 158, 225–26, 229, 238; postwar inspiration of masses and, 179–84; rise to power of, 32; Roosevelt’s death and, 67, 68, 100; Roosevelt’s relationship with, 45, 48–49, 58, 62, 67, 102–3, 104, 217, 336; ruthlessness of, 31–33, 150–52, 180, 261–62, 300, 315, 355–58; short stature of, 114; successors of, 261, 355; suspicious of allies, 35–36, 46–48, 55, 64–66, 67, 81, 107–8, 109, 111, 123–24; Tito’s conflict with, 262–63; toppling of Churchill government and, 117; Truman as viewed by, 69, 71, 101; Truman’s desire for personal meeting with, 102–3, 104; Truman’s rapport with, 114–16, 118; UN founding and, 46, 49, 51–52, 61, 62, 64, 97–100; U.S. reconstruction loan and, 54, 62, 101, 138; U.S. threat assessed by, 213–14

  Stalingrad, battle of (1942–43), 34, 36, 44, 76, 181

  State Department, U.S., 98, 101, 103, 137, 140–41, 143, 148, 230, 244, 257, 270, 281, 298; Amerasia investigation and, 224–25; atomic weapons and, 198, 199; Chambers–Hiss affair and, 268, 274; Chinese Communist victory and, 160–61, 226, 284–85, 286–87, 290, 346; Kennan’s cables to, 189–92, 216; Kennan’s retirement from, 282, 298; Korean War and, 315–16; McCarthyism and, 290–93

  Stephenson, William, 213

  Stettinius, Edward, 71, 102, 103, 110

  Stevenson, Adlai, 346

  Stilwell, Joseph W., 90–91, 92–93

  Stimson, Henry, 29, 56–57, 119–20, 130, 131

  Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S., 128

  Strauss, Lewis,
293

  strikes, 193, 219, 220

  Stuart, John L., 286

  Supreme Court, U.S., 86

  Supreme Soviet of the USSR, 99

  Taft, Robert, 176

  Taiwan, 283, 287, 353; potential attack on Nationalists in, 287–88, 301, 304, 310, 311–12, 313, 330

  Taiwan Strait, 330, 337, 350

  Tarawa, 86

  Taylor, A. J. P., 16

  Taylor, Maxwell, 367

  Tehran conference (1943), 34, 45–49, 343

  Teller, Edward, 293

  terrorism, 196, 296

  Thieu, Nguyen Van, 308

  Third World, 124, 275, 277, 317, 321, 360. See also specific nations

  Time, 40, 70, 82, 90, 144, 186

  Tito, Josip Broz, 45, 256, 262–63

  Tocqueville, Alexis de, 6, 146, 226–27, 317

  Tojo, Hideki, 87–88

  Tokyo: air raids on, 85, 88–89, 127; arrivals of U.S. forces in, 135, 136

  totalitarianism, 76

  Treasury Department, U.S., 272–73

  Trieste, 230, 262

  Trotsky, Leon, 29, 32

  Truman, Harry S., 68–71, 257, 364; accused of being soft on communism, 268, 269; anticommunism’s impact on standing of, 219–20, 224, 225–26; anxious about replacing Roosevelt, 109–10; apocalyptic rhetoric of, 231–35, 251–52, 255–56; approval ratings of, 193, 220–21, 266, 272, 313, 329, 334; assistance to developing countries and, 275; atomic weapons and, 68–69, 71, 101, 119–24, 126–33, 149, 155–57, 193, 198, 199, 200–201, 293–97, 329, 342; background and early career of, 70–71, 272; China and, 142, 143–44, 159–63, 283–90, 301; Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech and, 203–4, 207; Churchill’s personal rapport with, 110, 111–13; civil rights and, 266–67; congressional elections of 1946 and, 175, 266, 273; congressional opposition and, 228; containment policy of, 252, 265, 267, 332, 346, 351; Dardanelles and, 158; defense spending under, 277–78, 299, 317; domestic concerns and, 148–49, 193, 219–21, 264–70, 295–96, 312–13; elevated to presidency, 68–69, 71, 102, 109–10; foreign policy intentions of, at close of war, 146–49; Greek Communist uprising and, 230–33; H-bomb development and, 293–96; Indochina and, 140–41, 360; Israel recognized by, 269–70; Korean War and, 310, 311–14, 315–16, 318–19, 320, 322–25, 328–32, 337, 341, 348–49, 352, 354, 364, 369; MacArthur’s conflicts with, 318–19, 330–36, 342; MacArthur’s Wake Island meeting with, 323–24; manipulation of public opinion by, 227, 231–33; March 12, 1947, address of (Truman Doctrine address), 231–35; Marshall Plan and, 238–39, 255–56, 267; Marshall’s resignation and, 271–72; McCarthyism and, 292; Novikov’s cable on threat posed by, 215–17; NSC-68 and, 298–300; occupation of Japan and, 137; Pacific War and, 118–19, 125–29; Palestine issue and, 174–78, 269–70; personal meeting with Stalin sought by, 102–3, 104; physical appearance and demeanor of, 69–70; planning of postwar arrangements and, 71, 100–104, 107–18, 129–30, 135, 141, 155–56, 225–26; presidential election of 1948 and, 175, 176, 177, 221, 228, 265–70, 273; presidential election of 1952 and, 313; reorganization of defense establishment under, 248–51; Roosevelt’s dealings with, 68–69; Soviet A-test and, 278–79; Stalin and Soviets compared to Hitler and Nazis by, 258–59; Stalin’s assessment of threat posed by, 213; Stalin’s inflammatory rhetoric and, 185, 186, 187, 202; Stalin’s rapport with, 114–16, 118; toppling of Churchill government and, 117; tough responses of, toward Soviets, 100–101, 108, 120, 155–57; on travails of presidency, 217–18; UN founding, 100–103, 105; Wallace’s forced resignation and, 217, 227