The Rise of Rome (Penguin Classics)

  79. Bruttian: The Bruttians were the inhabitants of what is now Calabria. They were neither Greek nor Roman and, in this period, were in fact hostile to both. During the Second Punic War they sided with Hannibal.

  80. the commonest version of the story: This is the one told (less expansively than here) by Livy (27.15.9–11).

  81. Rhegium: Modern Reggio di Calabria, a prosperous Greek city that had long been a Roman ally.

  82. Caulonia: A Greek settlement in southern Italy near modern Punta Stilo. It suffered extensively during the Second Punic War and by the first century BC was abandoned.

  83. they included the worse elements … sent home from Sicily in disgrace: In fact these were troops sent to Italy in 210 by the consul Marcus Valerius Laevinus (Livy 26.40 and 27.12).

  84. Hercules: The Fabii claimed to descend from Hercules (ch. 1).

  85. indicated in his Life: Plutarch praises Marcellus’ conduct at the fall of Syracuse as well as his display of Syracusan art in his ovatio (Marcellus 20–21, a passage that explicitly contrasts Fabius with Marcellus).

  86. 40 stades: Hannibal had come within 4½ miles (slightly more than 7 km) of Tarentum.

  87. a second triumph … more magnificent than his first: Fabius’ first triumph is mentioned in ch. 2.

  88. enervated by … plunder: According to Livy (23.18.9–16), Hannibal’s soldiers were corrupted by luxury when they wintered in Capua in 216 and 215.

  89. Marcus Livius: His precise identity is uncertain. He is Gaius Livius at Polybius 8.25.2, and Appian (Hannibalic War 32) calls him Junius.

  90. ‘You are quite right … recaptured it’: Fabius’ remark is also reported at Moralia 195f.

  91. marks of honour … elect his son as consul: This had nothing to do with Fabius’ capture of Tarentum. His son was consul in 213.

  92. ‘You are right … parents and children’: Fabius’ remark is also reported at Moralia 196a. According to Livy (24.44.9), this episode took place in the field, when the son took command of his father’s army and Fabius became his son’s legate.

  93. great-grandfather of our Fabius: See note 4.

  94. son became consul … served as his subordinate: Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, Rullianus’ son, was consul for the first time in 292, when his father served as his legate.

  95. in the triumph that followed: In 290.

  96. authority … as a private individual: A Roman father possessed total authority over his children, including his adult children, unless he legally released them from it.

  97. funeral oration … distributed it among his friends: See note 8.

  98. Cornelius Scipio: Publius Cornelius Scipio, who defeated Hannibal at the battle of Zama in 202 (and was honoured with the surname Africanus). In 210 he was voted a proconsular command and sent to Spain, where, by 206, he had driven out the Carthaginian forces there.

  99. elected consul: For 205.

  100. Crassus: Publius Licinius Crassus was Scipio’s colleague in 205.

  101. cities of Etruria … loyal to him: Livy (28.45) describes in detail Scipio’s support from the Etrurian cities.

  102. Crassus … remained at home: He did in fact leave Rome in order to campaign in Bruttium.

  103. office of high priest: Since 212 Crassus had been pontifex maximus, the chief of Rome’s civic religion. According to Livy (28.44.11), Crassus preferred to remain in Italy lest he be absent from the sacred responsibilities of his priestly office, although in fact nothing prohibited his leaving inasmuch as other priests could substitute for the pontifex maximus whenever he was away from the city.

  104. troops … already in Sicily: Scipio was allocated Sicily as his province, from which base he was authorized to invade Africa.

  105. arrived … decisive victories: Scipio invaded Africa in 204. Initially he enjoyed only mixed success, but in 203 he inflicted multiple defeats on Carthage and captured Syphax, king of Numidia.

  106. envoys were sent to Hannibal: Sent by the government in Carthage.

  107. this was the moment … he should be recalled: In 205, before the invasion of Africa, there was a serious scandal involving Scipio’s legate Quintus Pleminius, in which Scipio, as his commander, was implicated. Fabius exploited this moment to put forward a motion in the senate recalling Scipio, who was investigated and exonerated (Livy 29.16–20). Plutarch’s version of this is misleading. Cf. his account of the matter in Elder Cato 3.

  108. Hannibal … sailed away from Italy: In 203.

  109. Scipio defeated Hannibal himself: In 202, at the battle of Zama.

  110. ‘righted the ship that storms so long had tossed’: Sophocles, Antigone 163 (slightly adapted).

  111. Epaminondas … iron spit: On Epaminondas see General Introduction II. The ‘iron spit’ Plutarch mentions was Spartan currency, which was valueless in the outside world.

  112. every citizen contributed … towards the funeral: Valerius Maximus 5.2.3 adduces Fabius’ funeral as a notable instance of gratitude; in his version, however, the people vie with one another in giving large contributions.

  Notes to the Comparison of Pericles and Fabius Maximus

  1. peak of their imperial power: By the mid-fifth century BC, Athens had transformed the Delian League, an alliance of city-states formed in order to protect Greece from Persian aggression, into what was essentially an Athenian empire: see R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire (1972).

  2. Cimon: (c. 510–c. 450) A great Athenian general, whose victories over the Persians, especially at the battle of Eurymedon in 466, made possible Athens’ dominance over and exploitation of the Delian League; he is the subject of Plutarch’s Cimon.

  3. Myronides: Athenian general in the 450s, celebrated for his victories over the Corinthians and Boeotians.

  4. Leocrates: An Athenian general at the battle of Plataea (479) and commander at the siege of Aegina (459/8).

  5. Tolmides: A leading democratic politician in Athens who was frequently elected general in the 450s and 440s; he pursued an aggressively imperialist foreign policy and won numerous spectacular victories.

  6. holidays and festivals: Pericles 9, discussing Pericles’ use of public largesse as a means of winning political popularity.

  7. reining in … a people: More than once in Pericles Plutarch depicts the people as a horse that needs a bridle (e.g. Pericles 7, 11, 15).

  8. conquest of Samos: During 440/39 (Pericles 25–8).

  9. capture of Tarentum: Fabius Maximus 22–3.

  10. taking of Euboea: In 446 (Pericles 22–3).

  11. Fabius’ seizing the cities of Campania: In 214 Fabius and Marcellus campaigned in Campania, capturing several cities (Livy 24.19–20, Marcellus 26); Plutarch, however, does not narrate these events in Fabius Maximus.

  12. the reduction of Capua … Fulvius and Appius: Capua was the chief city of Campania and was captured in 211 by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus and Appius Claudius Pulcher, consuls in the previous year. The episode is recorded in many sources (e.g. Polybius 9.3.1–4 and 26.4.1–10).

  13. the victory … celebrated his first triumph: Fabius Maximus 2.

  14. nine trophies: Plutarch also mentions nine trophies at Pericles 38 but in that Life describes the circumstances of only one of them (at Pericles 19); the remainder go undiscussed.

  15. snatched Minucius away … saved an entire Roman army: Fabius Maximus 11–12.

  16. when Hannibal out-generalled him … employing oxen: Fabius Maximus 6–7.

  17. tried to accomplish too much and lost their empire: According to Thucydides (2.65.13), Pericles told the Athenians they would win the Peloponnesian War if they did not attempt to add to their empire while fighting the Spartans. He goes on to observe that, after Pericles’ death in 429, the Athenians discarded his policy and for that reason were defeated in 404.

  18. by rejecting Fabius’ advice … against the Carthaginians: Fabius Maximus 25–7.

  19. Inexperience … robs him of his courage: The relevance of this sentiment to Fabius’ opposition (near the end of his long
life) to Scipio is far from clear.

  20. he caused it … when he was at odds with them: The extent of Pericles’ responsibility for the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War is discussed at Pericles 29 and 31.

  21. subversion of Cimon: Cimon was ostracized in 461. Pericles’ factious politics are described at Pericles 9–14.

  22. Thucydides: Not the historian but the son of Melesias, and a very influential figure and a political enemy of Pericles; he was ostracized, perhaps in 443.

  23. Tolmides … attacked the Boeotians: In 447 Tolmides fell at the battle of Coronea, after which the Athenians were forced to evacuate Boeotia. Plutarch records Pericles’ opposition to Tolmides’ invasion (Pericles 18).

  24. at his own expense he ransomed the prisoners of war: Fabius Maximus 7.

  25. around 6 talents: In his earlier narrative (see previous note) Plutarch reports that ransoming the prisoners cost Fabius 10 talents (he paid 250 drachmas for each of the 240 prisoners he ransomed, a total of 60,000 drachmas or 10 talents).

  26. kept himself honest and incorruptible: See e.g. Pericles 15.

  27. Pericles’ grand public works: Described in detail at Pericles 12–13.

  MARCELLUS

  Further Reading

  The only English commentary on the Life of Marcellus is a University of British Columbia dissertation by E. D. Clark, ‘A Historical Commentary on Plutarch’s Marcellus’ (1991). In Italian there is P. Fabrini and L. Ghilli, Plutarco, Vite parallele: Pelopida e Marcello (1998). The philosophical basis of Plutarch’s disapproval of Pelopidas and Marcellus is examined in detail by H. G. Ingenkamp, ‘Moralia in the Lives: The Charge of Rashness in Pelopidas/Marcellus’, in A. G. Nikolaidis (ed.), The Unity of Plutarch’s Work (2008), pp. 263–76. A strong bias on Plutarch’s part against Marcellus is detected by A. Georgiadou, ‘Bias and character-portrayal in Plutarch’s Lives of Pelopidas and Marcellus’, ANRW 2.33.6 (1992), pp. 4222–57, a paper that takes a somewhat different approach to the Life from the one found in this volume. On the role of Archimedes in this Life, see M. Jaeger, Archimedes and the Roman Imagination (2008), and especially P. Culham, ‘Plutarch on the Roman Siege of Syracuse: the primacy of science over technology’, in G. Italo (ed.), Plutarco e le scienza (1992), pp. 179–97. This Life has an obvious relationship with the (later) Fabius Maximus, which is discussed (in German) by H. Beck, ‘Interne Synkrisis bei Plutarch’, Hermes 130 (2002), pp. 467–89. Marcellus’ incipient Hellenism and its importance for Plutarchan biography is discussed by Pelling, ‘Roman heroes’, pp. 199–208, and Swain, ‘Culture’.

  On the historical background, see the references cited in the Introduction to Fabius Maximus. The best account of Marcellus’ Syracusan campaign remains A. M. Eckstein, Senate and General: Individual Decision-Making and Roman Foreign Relations, 264–194 BC (1987), pp. 135–84. Marcellus’ political skills are superbly captured in an important paper by H. Flower, ‘The Tradition of the Spolia Opima: M. Claudius Marcellus and Augustus’, Classical Antiquity 19 (2000), pp. 34–64. Livy’s view of Marcellus is well treated by D. S. Levene, Livy on the Hannibalic War (2010), pp. 197–214.

  Notes to the Introduction to Marcellus

  1. Roman campaigns in northern Italy are discussed by E. S. Stavely in CAH vii.2 (1989), pp. 431–6.

  2. Marcellus’ innovations in self-display are examined by H. Flower, Classical Antiquity 19 (2000), pp. 34–64.

  3. On the Second Punic War, see Introduction to Fabius Maximus.

  4. On Marcellus’ Sicilian campaign, see Eckstein, Senate and General, pp. 135–84. Accessible accounts include M. I. Finley, Ancient Sicily (1968), pp. 113–21; T. A. Dorey and D. R. Dudley, Rome Against Carthage (1971), pp. 119–34; and A. Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars (2000), pp. 260–68.

  5. See the important paper by T. C. Brennan in R. W. Wallace and E. M. Harris (eds.), Transitions to Empire: Essays in Greco-Roman History, 360–146 BC, in Honor of E. Badian (1996), pp. 315–37.

  6. On Marcellus’ ovation and Alban triumph see H. S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (1970), pp. 165–71, and Beard, Roman Triumph, pp. 147–79. Marcellus’ dedications are noticed in chs. 8 and 30; see also Cicero, Against Verres 2.4.21, and The Republic 1.21.

  7. See H. Flower in U. Eigler, U. Gotter, N. Luraghi and U. Walter (eds.), Formen römischer Geschichtsschreibung von den Anfängen bis Livius: Gattungen, Autoren, Kontexte (2003), pp. 39–52.

  8. See e.g. poetic treatments of Marcellus’ death in Virgil, Aeneid 6.855–86; Horace, Odes 1.12.45–6; and Propertius 4.10.39–44.

  9. An opinion Livy underscores when later (34.4.3) he puts it in the mouth of the Elder Cato.

  10. On Livy’s treatment of Marcellus, see Levene, Livy on the Hannibalic War, pp. 197–214.

  11. On this point see H. Martin, American Journal of Philology 82 (1961), pp. 164–75.

  12. On the significance of Marcellus’ introduction of Greek artworks to Rome, see M. McDonnell in S. Dillon and K. E. Welch (eds.), Representations of War in Ancient Rome (2006), pp. 68–90.

  13. See R. Seager in CAH vi (1994), pp. 176–86 and 187–208. The Sacred Band was an elite Theban unit consisting of 300 men.

  14. See further A. Georgiadou, Plutarch’s Pelopidas: A Historical and Philological Commentary (1997).

  15. For instance, at Plutarch, Artaxerxes 8 and 11; see Duff, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 78–82.

  16. See Introduction to Coriolanus and General Introduction III.

  17. The topic of human sacrifice is raised in Pelopidas 21, only to be rejected as unnatural and cruel.

  18. Polybius’ treatment of the Second Punic War extends through Books 3 to 16, although Books 6 and 12 are digressions. Livy’s account of the war runs from Book 21 to 30. Polybius (2.34–5) records the events of Marcellus’ first consulship. Livy’s treatment appeared in Summary of Book 20.

  19. Lucius Coelius Antipater flourished in the second half of the second century BC. He composed a much-admired history of the Second Punic War: see HRR, vol. 1, pp. ccxi–ccxxxviii and 158–77.

  20. Valerius Antias was active in the first century BC. He composed a history of Rome from its origins to 91 BC: see HRR, vol. 1, pp. cccv and 238.

  21. None of the fragments of Poseidonius dealing with Marcellus can be attributed to a specific work: see I. G. Kidd, Posidonius, vol. 2 (1988), pp. 896–902.

  Notes to the Life of Marcellus

  1. Poseidonius: (c. 135–c. 51) The leading Greek intellectual of the first century BC, and an admired philosopher and historian (see Introduction).

  2. Marcellus … means warlike: In fact the name Marcellus is a diminutive of Marcus. Plutarch (or his source) incorrectly believes Marcellus derives from Mars (hence his translation). Several Roman surnames are formed from first names.

  3. ‘lover of battle’ … ‘mighty in combat’: Plutarch here appropriates expressions found in Homer (e.g. Iliad 3.36 and 16.65); he repeats them when he refers to Marcellus at Fabius Maximus 19.

  4. Decreed … in arduous wars: See Iliad 14.86–7. Plutarch does not finish the quotation: ‘until we perish’, though in fact Marcellus will die in combat.

  5. they campaigned … under Hannibal: Plutarch refers to the First Punic War (264–241), the Romans’ wars against the Gauls in northern Italy (238–236 and 225–220) and the Second Punic War (218–201).

  6. Otacilius: Titus Otacilius Crassus (praetor in 217), apparently Marcellus’ half-brother or adoptive brother. Plutarch refers to combat during the First Punic War.

  7. curule aedile: Plutarch actually writes, ‘aedile of the most elevated rank’, by which he means curule aedile. Marcellus probably held this office before or in 226.

  8. augur … flight of birds: On augury see further Numa 7 and Aemilius Paullus 3.

  9. Capitolinus: Gaius Scantinius Capitolinus. According to Valerius Maximus (6.1.7) he was a tribune of the people. It has been suggested that in fact he was a plebeian aedile.

  10. engaged in a struggle with th
e Gauls: Open war broke out in 225, but it was preceded by months of preparation. On the history of Rome’s conflict with the Gauls in northern Italy see Stavely in CAH vii.2, pp. 431–6.

  11. Insubrians … Gaesati: The Insubrians lived in northern Italy; they were finally subjugated by the Romans in 194. The Gaesati came from an Alpine region along the Rhoˆne.

  12. Romans never forgot … invasion by the Gauls: The sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 is narrated at Camillus 19–23. For the law about emergency levies in reaction to a Gallic invasion, see Camillus 41.

  13. Sibylline Books: See Publicola, note 121.

  14. bury alive … Cattle-market: The sacrifices, performed in the oldest centre of the city (the Cattle-market, or Forum Boarium), were carried out in 228 and repeated in 216 (when the Romans were threatened by Hannibal, whose invasion of Italy was supported by the Gauls) and again in 113 (when again the Romans were in fear of Gallic attacks). Later Roman tradition regarded these actions as abominations and emphasized that they were prescribed by the (Greek) Sibylline oracles. In the Greek parallel to this Life (Pelopidas 21), the hero is shocked by a dream that seems to demand human sacrifice; the propriety of human sacrifice is debated and, in the end, the gods present an alternative. Plutarch discusses the Romans’ human sacrifice further at Moralia 283f–284c.

  15. perform certain ceremonies … Greeks or Gauls: Some editors delete the reference to Greeks or Gauls. In any case, it is unclear what ceremonies Plutarch has in mind.

  16. Flaminius and Furius: Gaius Flaminius and Publius Furius Philus were the consuls of 223.

  17. Picenum: A region east of the Apennines, the modern Marche.

  18. Ariminum: Modern Rimini.

  19. omens … inauspicious … lay down their office: Irregularities in the auspices resulted in a magistracy that was vitiated, a religious condition which threatened future magisterial undertakings. A vitiated consul was a legitimate consul, but it was his duty to rectify the irregularity in his appointment by resigning his office.