The Rise of Rome (Penguin Classics)

  267. offer him sacrifices: Aratus came to be remembered as a hero who was a son of Asclepius (Pausanias 2.10.3).

  268. Daesius … Anthesterion: Anthesterion corresponds roughly to February. At Camillus 19 Plutarch equates Daesius with Thargelion (roughly the month of May), but there he has in mind the Macedonian Daesius, which was different from the Sicyonian Daesius.

  269. Soteria: That is, the Festival of Salvation; Aratus was revered as the city’s saviour and was celebrated in sacrifices performed by the priest of Zeus the Saviour.

  270. Artists of Dionysus: Highly esteemed professional guilds of itinerant actors and musicians; they were active as early as the third century BC and continued to be prominent well into the imperial period.

  271. The gymnasiarch: A prominent civic official responsible for a city’s gymnasium or gymnasia, an important institution of education as well as physical training for the young.

  272. deprived of … his empire … hostage: This was the result of the Second Macedonian War (200–197): see Flamininus 7–9. The son who went to Rome was Demetrius (c. 207–180): see Aemilius Paullus 8 and Flamininus 9. A full account of the settlement is provided by Polybius (18.39.5–6 and 18.44.2–7); Philip was actually allowed to retain six ships.

  273. a son: Demetrius (see previous note).

  274. his other son … Gnathaenion: This story is repeated at Aemilius Paullus 8, but Perseus was not the illegitimate son of a seamstress: he was Philip’s son by Polycrateia (note 250).

  275. royal line … came to its end: Perseus was defeated by Aemilius Paullus in the Third Macedonian War (171–168); see Aemilius Paullus.

  PHILOPOEMEN

  Further Reading

  There is no English commentary on Philopoemen, but there is an excellent one in Italian: C. Pelling and E. Melandri, Plutarco, Vite Parallele: Filopemene e Tito Flaminino (1997). There is also a very good, if now somewhat dated, biography by R. M. Errington, Philopoemen (1969). On the historical background, see E. S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (1984), P. Cartledge and A. Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta: A Tale of Two Cities (2nd edn, 2002), A. M. Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East: From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC (2008), and P. J. Burton, Friendship and Empire: Roman Diplomacy and Imperialism in the Middle Republic (353–146 BC) (2011). Plutarch’s view of this period has been re-examined by J. M. Bremer, ‘Plutarch and the “Liberation of Greece” ’, in L. de Blois, J. Bons, T. Kessels and D. M. Shenkeveld (eds.), The Statesman in Plutarch’s Works, vol. 2: The Statesman in Plutarch’s Greek and Roman Lives (2005), pp. 257–67. There are also very helpful chapters in CAH: F. W. Walbank, ‘Macedonia and Greece’, vii.1 (1984), pp. 221–56, and ‘Macedonia and the Greek Leagues’, vii.1, pp. 446–81; R. M. Errington, ‘Rome and Greece to 205 BC’, viii (1989), pp. 81–106, and ‘Rome Against Philip and Antiochus’, viii, pp. 244–89. More detailed coverage is available by consulting Walbank, Commentary, vols. 2 and 3, and J. Briscoe, A Commentary on Livy, Books 31–33 (1973), Books 34–37 (1981) and Books 38–40 (2008).

  There are several excellent interpretative studies of this Life: S. Swain, ‘Plutarch’s Philopoemen and Flamininus’, Illinois Classical Studies 13 (1988), pp. 335–47, and Swain, H&E, pp. 145–50 and 172–3; J. J. Walsh, ‘Syzygy, Theme and History: A Study in Plutarch’s Philopoemen and Flamininus’, Philologus 136 (1992), pp. 208–33; Duff, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 267–9; and Pelling, P&H, pp. 243–8 and 350–53.

  Notes to the Introduction to Philopoemen

  1. See Jones, ‘Chronology’, p. 111.

  2. See Philopoemen 1, Aratus 24 and Pausanias 8.52.1.

  3. On Polybius’ bias, see A. M. Eckstein, Moral Vision in the Histories of Polybius (1995), pp. 30–34.

  4. For the historical background to affairs in the Peloponnese in the generation preceding Philopoemen, including the organization of the Achaean League, its relationship with Aetolia and Sparta, and its alliance with Macedon, see Introduction to Aratus.

  5. The hipparch was second in authority only to the league’s strategos, or general. On Philopoemen’s activities in Crete, see Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 13–48; and Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta, pp. 66–7.

  6. On Philopoemen’s military reforms, see J. A. O. Larsen, Greek Federal States: Their Institutions and History (1968), p. 375; and Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 51–4, 62–7.

  7. Machanidas had seized power in Sparta by 211; see Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta, pp. 65–9. On the First Macedonian War (214–205), see Errington in CAH viii (1989), pp. 94–106.

  8. Nabis was a major figure both in Sparta and the larger Greek world; see Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta, pp. 59–79.

  9. This is the necessary inference from Polybius 16.27.1–4.

  10. On diplomatic events leading to the Second Macedonian War, see Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, pp. 230–70.

  11. See Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 36–48.

  12. See Introduction to Flamininus.

  13. See chs. 14–15, Livy 35.37.1–3 and Pausanias 8.50.10–8.51.1; and see further Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 105–12.

  14. See Errington in CAH viii, pp. 274–89; and see Introduction to Flamininus.

  15. Cf. Livy 38.30–34. See Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 144–7; and Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta, pp. 77–80.

  16. On these events, see Larsen, Greek Federal States: Their Institutions and History, pp. 449–54; Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 173–215; and Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, pp. 360–61.

  17. Cf. Livy 39.49–50; Pausanias 4.29.11 and 8.51.5. Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 191–3, argues that Philopoemen was not in fact executed but died of wounds he received when he was captured, but this view has not been widely accepted.

  18. On the association of philonikia and philoneikia (‘contentiousness’) in Plutarch’s day, see Pelling, P&H, p. 347. In the passage just quoted, Plutarch diverges from his sources: Polybius (18.46.13–15) and Livy (33.33.5–8), in their treatments of this same episode, focus on Roman virtue and power.

  19. On Philopoemen’s contentiousness (philonikia/philoneikia) see chs. 3 and 17, and Comparison Philopoemen–Flamininus 1; and see also Pelling, P&H, pp. 243–8, 350–53.

  20. Coriolanus–Alcibiades was composed late in the series of Parallel Lives: see Jones, ‘Chronology’, p. 111. On Coriolanus’ great nature and its moral hazards, see Introduction to his Life.

  21. Phronēma, to be sure, has more than one connotation, but it sometimes appears amid the terminology marking out great natures: e.g. Coriolanus 15 and Plato, Republic 494b; see further Duff, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 83–4. Its association with anger and contentiousness in this Life suggests that idea here.

  22. On the importance of education and culture (paideia) in the perfection of character in Plutarch’s Lives, see General Introduction III.

  23. On this point see Swain, H&E, p. 150.

  24. See P. S. Derow in CAH viii, pp. 290–323.

  25. For more on Phylarchus, see Introduction to Aratus.

  Notes to the Life of Philopoemen

  1. Cleander: Mentioned also by Polybius (10.22.1) and Pausanias (8.49.2); his exile from Mantinea, an Arcadian city in the central Peloponnese, probably belongs around 253/2.

  2. Megalopolis: See Aratus, note 31.

  3. Craugis: From a distinguished family (Polybius 10.22.1, Pausanias 8.49.2). Nothing else is known about him.

  4. Homer’s tale of … Achilles: Iliad 9.438–95. Like Cleander, Phoenix was an exile who took special care of a child because of his ties with the father (in Achilles’ case, Peleus), though that was not quite a ‘guardianship’ inasmuch as Peleus was still alive.

  5. Ecdelus and Demophanes: See Aratus (ch. 5, mentioning only Ecdelus) and Polybius 10.22.2. Pausanias (8.49.2) refers to them as Ecdelus and Megalophanes.

  6. Arcesilaus: Arcesilaus of Pitane (315–241) became head of the Academy in A
thens around 260.

  7. Aristodemus: Called ‘Aristodemus the Good’, he became tyrant of Megalopolis during the Chremonidean War (268–261). The date of his expulsion is unknown.

  8. Aratus … Nicocles, tyrant of Sicyon: Aratus liberated Sicyon in 251 (Aratus 5–9).

  9. Cyrene: An important Greek city in northern Africa (modern Shahhat in Libya). During this period the city often fell under the influence of the Ptolemies. Its short-lived liberation occurred sometime between 253 and 247, but the entire episode remains obscure; see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 2, p. 224.

  10. ‘the last of the Greeks’: Also cited at Aratus 24 and Pausanias 8.52.1. The unnamed Roman may have intended it less as praise of Philopoemen than denigration of his successors.

  11. statue at Delphi: Presumably the statue mentioned at ch. 10.

  12. Megara: A city on the Isthmus of Corinth, lying opposite the island of Salamis.

  13. guest-friend: Important individuals in different cities or states often enjoyed a relationship, known as xenia or guest-friendship, whereby they looked after one another’s interests in their respective communities.

  14. broad Doric: This would not be Philopoemen’s natural dialect, which presumably was Arcadian. Perhaps he is simply making himself out to be a real yokel or, more likely, the assumed Doric accent plays on the famous Spartan simplicity of dress.

  15. in the schools: In the philosophical schools (where Aratus was also discussed: Aratus 29).

  16. Epaminondas: On Epaminondas, see General Introduction II.

  17. training and diet diverge widely: The contrast drawn here between an athlete’s and a soldier’s regimen is closely based on Plato, Republic 3.403e–404b.

  18. raids … into Laconia: Megalopolis had been founded in 369 as a counterweight to Sparta, and the hostility of the two cities remained strong (Aratus 30).

  19. spare time … public affairs: Cf. Plutarch’s description of Cato’s lifestyle in Tarentum at Elder Cato 3.

  20. Tactics of Evangelus: Presumably Hellenistic but its precise date is unknown; also mentioned by Aelian (Tactics 1) and Arrian (Tactics 1).

  21. histories of Alexander’s campaigns: Of these there were many, most of them now lost; see A. B. Bosworth, From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in Historical Interpretation (1988).

  22. phalanx: The rectangular infantry formation that characterized ancient Greek and Macedonian warfare.

  23. Cleomenes: Cleomenes III (c. 260–222) became king of Sparta around 235. He is an important figure in Aratus, see Introduction there; he is also the subject of Plutarch’s Cleomenes. He captured Megalopolis in autumn 223. For fuller accounts see Cleomenes 44–6 and Polybius 2.55.6–8 and 2.61.5–2.62.

  24. Messene: See Aratus, note 239.

  25. offering to restore … its territory: The condition was that Megalopolis should abandon the Achaean League and ally with Sparta.

  26. not giving back the city … within his power: See also Cleomenes 45.

  27. These arguments: Described in more detail at Polybius 2.61.1.

  28. Antigonus: Antigonus Doson (c. 263–221) led an alliance of Macedonians and Achaeans against Cleomenes; see Aratus 38–46 and Introduction to that Life.

  29. marched … against … Sellasia: In 222. Fuller accounts of this decisive battle can be read at Cleomenes 49 and Polybius 2.66–70; see also Aratus 46. A detailed modern reconstruction of the course of the battle is provided by W. K. Pritchett, Studies in Ancient Greek Topography, vol. 1 (1965), pp. 59–70.

  30. among the cavalry: Probably an error. Polybius (2.66.6–7) seems to show that the Achaean (and Megalopolitan) contingent were infantry, not cavalry. As an officer, Philopoemen will anyway have served on horseback (Polybius 2.69.1), and if Plutarch is wrong this may explain his mistake.

  31. Illyrians: A large group of related peoples inhabiting the western Balkans.

  32. Their …: Plutarch’s Greek is unclear here but presumably he refers exclusively to the Achaeans (cf. Cleomenes 49 and Polybius 2.66.10–2.67.1).

  33. Eucleidas: After Cleomenes deposed his royal colleague Archidamus in 227, he appointed his brother in his place. Eucleidas fell in the fighting at Sellasia.

  34. At this point … outwards: Pausanias (8.49.6) puts this episode after the battle.

  35. Antigonus … win the battle: Like Polybius (2.66–8), Plutarch suggests that Philopoemen’s personal bravery turned the battle, but that is an exaggeration; see Errington, Philopoemen, pp. 20–23.

  36. a … lad: Philopoemen was thirty or thirty-one at the time and so hardly a lad (the Greek word indicates a youth of not more than twenty), but it suited the Macedonian commanders, in making their excuse to the king, to exaggerate his youth.

  37. ‘That lad … a great general’: Plutarch improves on Polybius’ version of Antigonus’ bon mot; see Polybius 2.68.1–2.

  38. a long time: Philopoemen was in Crete from 221 to 211.

  39. hipparch: Philopoemen was hipparch in 210/9.

  40. exercise … authority: Polybius (10.22.9) makes even clearer the political clout of the Achaean League’s cavalry class.

  41. nimble … at will: For the details of the cavalry’s exercises see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 2, pp. 225–9.

  42. battle … Larissus: This battle took place in 209, during the First Macedonian War (214–205), when the Aetolians were allied with Rome against Macedon and the Achaean League. The Larissus is a small river that marked the border between Elis and Achaea.

  43. Eleian hipparch Damophantus: Elis (modern Ilida) was both a region and a city in the northwest Peloponnese. Damophantus is known only from this episode.

  44. power … to the Achaean League: See Introduction to Aratus.

  45. When land forms … stable and hard: Plutarch’s explanation of the origin of this sacred island (by which he means the Insula Tiberina and not the Isola Sacra located near Ostia) at Publicola 8.

  46. cities … from their tyrants: See Introduction to Aratus.

  47. the whole Peloponnese … single power: A vision realized by Philopoemen when he incorporated Sparta into the Achaean League (ch. 15).

  48. While Aratus was still alive: He died in 213 (Aratus 52).

  49. Ptolemy … Antigonus … Greek affairs: Ptolemy III and Antigonus Doson were each named leader (hegemon) of the Achaean League; thereafter Antigonus and later Philip V held the position of hegemon of the Hellenic League (Introduction to Aratus).

  50. Aratus … a reputation … his own Life: See especially Aratus 10, 12, 13, 15 and 43; his ineffectuality in warfare is emphasized in Aratus 10 and 29.

  51. reformed … tactics and weaponry: He did this during his first term as general (strategos) in 208/7, see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 2, pp. 280–82.

  52. in the Macedonian fashion: In the Macedonian phalanx, infantrymen locked shields and wielded long pikes, creating a formidable battle array that impressed even the Romans; see the description at Flamininus 8.

  53. Thericlean cups: Thericles was a much-admired Corinthian potter and a skilled engraver of bowls made from precious metals; he lived in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC. He also gave his name to a distinctive shape of pottery: see W. Miller, TAPhA 52 (1921), pp. 119–31. Thericlean bowls also make an appearance in the triumph of Aemilius Paullus at Aemilius Paullus 33, where again they connote luxury.

  54. Achilles’ new arms … using them: Iliad 19.15–23.

  55. Machanidas: He had seized power in Sparta by 211 and thereafter pursued an aggressive policy of territorial expansion.

  56. invaded Mantinea: In June 207; a fuller account of this battle is provided by Polybius (11.11–18).

  57. light cavalry: Literally Tarentines, which is a technical term for this brand of light cavalry; see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 1, p. 529.

  58. hoplites: Greek infantrymen, named from the type of shield they carried (called a hoplon).

  59. Simmias and Polyaenus: Unknown except for this episode.

  60. bronze statue: The inscription from the base
of this statue survives and reads:

  Erected by the league of the Achaeans in honour of Philopoemen, son of Craugis, to commemorate his courage and his goodwill towards the league. (Syll. 625)

  This is probably the statue mentioned in ch. 2.

  61. Nemean festival: Panhellenic games held every other year at the sanctuary of Zeus at Nemea.

  62. general for the second time: In 206/5, and so these are the Nemean Games of 205.

  63. Pylades: A citizen of Megalopolis, according to Pausanias (8.50.3), and the most renowned lyre-player of his day – the winner of a victory at the Pythian Games.

  64. Timotheus’ Persians: Timotheus of Miletus (c. 450–360), a distinguished lyre-player and an innovative and influential poet. Large portions of his poem Persians survive in a papyrus. The poem is an account of the battle of Salamis. This opening line, which presumably refers to Themistocles, is Timotheus, fr. 788, in D. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric, vol. 5 (1993).

  65. One example …: The following three examples are recounted similarly, and in the same order, by Pausanias (8.50.4–5).

  66. assassins to Argos … reputation among the Greeks: Pausanias (8.50.4) has the assassins sent to Megalopolis, not Argos; Justin (Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 29.4.11) also briefly tells the story. The episode is unlikely and is in any case undatable.

  67. Boeotians … besieging Megara … take it quickly: More details are provided at Polybius 20.6.7–12. The incident remains undated.

  68. Nabis … captured Messene: Probably in summer 201. Nabis made himself sole king in Sparta after Machanidas’ death in 207 (ch. 10), after which he initiated profound social reforms and expanded Spartan power both in the Peloponnese and in Crete. He was assassinated in 192.

  69. Lysippus: General in 202/1 but otherwise unknown.

  70. Philopoemen went anyway … liberated: Plutarch recurs to this at his Comparison Philopoemen–Flamininus 3; he also mentions the episode at Moralia 817e.

  71. second spell in Crete: Philopoemen went to Crete in 200 or 199, returning in 194 or early 193, which puts him outside Greece during the Second Macedonian War (200–197).