The Rise of Rome (Penguin Classics)

  77. press of the crowd … life was in danger: No hostility was involved.

  78. fate of Greece: Plutarch also muses on the causes of Greek decline at ch. 15. See also Timoleon 29 and Moralia 401c–d. In Flamininus he diverges from his sources: instead of reflecting on Greek history in their accounts of this episode, Polybius (18.46.13–15) and Livy (33.33.5–8) concentrate on Roman virtue and power.

  79. Agesilaus … Alcibiades: Agesilaus (c. 445–359), king of Sparta and a leading military figure of his time; Lysander (d. 395), a Spartan general, hero of the Peloponnesian War and a proponent of Spartan imperialism; Nicias (c. 470–413), an Athenian general and statesman who commanded Athens’ ill-fated attempt to conquer Sicily; and Alcibiades (451–404), an Athenian general and political figure, notorious for his intrigues – domestic and international – during the Peloponnesian War. Each is the subject of a Plutarchan Life.

  80. Marathon … Cyprus: The battles of Marathon (490), Salamis (480), Plataea (479) and Thermopylae (480) were fought against the Persians in the First and Second Persian Wars. Cimon (c. 510–c. 450) was an Athenian statesman and general who won a major victory over the Persians at the battle of Eurymedon (466) and died, in 451 or 450, while campaigning on Cyprus against the Persians; he is the subject of a Plutarchan Life.

  81. an ancient shared ancestry: The historical relationship between Greeks and Romans, defined in the multiple explanations of Rome’s founding, was controversial in Greece. Elsewhere, Plutarch can describe Rome as a Greek city (Camillus 22).

  82. Titus … missions: Although Plutarch puts Flamininus in charge here, this was actually the collaborative work of the proconsul and the senatorial commission (ch. 10). A fuller and more accurate account is provided by Polybius (18.48.1–3).

  83. Lentulus … Bargylia: Publius Cornelius Lentulus (praetor in 203) was sent first to Bargylia (modern Asar in Turkey), then on to Antiochus himself. The freedom of the Greeks announced by the Romans included the Greek cities in Asia (Polybius 18.44), an unmistakable challenge to Antiochus.

  84. Stertinius: Lucius Stertinius had been appointed through special legislation to a proconsular command in Spain (Livy 31.50.11), but nothing further is known of his career.

  85. Publius Villius: Publius Villius Tappulus had been consul in 199.

  86. removing the garrisons and restoring … to the peoples: Plutarch is our only source for this action by Flamininus.

  87. In Argos … freedom to the Greeks: Late summer or early autumn in 195. Plutarch is misleading here. The proclamation at Argos was not a simple repetition of the one at Corinth but related especially to the freedom of Argos itself (Livy 34.41.1–3).

  88. from city to city … affection: Flamininus’ jurisdiction is described at Livy 34.48.2. The nature of Flamininus’ activities in Greece at this time is illustrated by an inscription recording his instructions to the city of Chyretiae (modern Domeniko) in Perrhaebia (Syll. 593; see R. K. Sherk, Rome and the Greek East to the Death of Augustus (1984), p. 5, for translation and commentary).

  89. Xenocrates: Xenocrates of Chalcedon, head of the Academy 339–314, during which time he was a resident alien (metic) in Athens.

  90. Lycurgus: (c. 390–c. 325) An important Athenian statesman. Among his significant contributions to Athens, and relevant to this anecdote, were his policies to increase Athens’ revenues.

  91. God’s assistance: That the rise of Rome was favoured by the gods is axiomatic in Plutarch: see Swain, H&E, pp. 151–61.

  92. Sons of Zeus: These are the Dioscuri, children of Zeus and Tyndarus’ wife Leda, hence their address as Tyndarids.

  93. Aeneadae: The descendants of Aeneas, i.e. the Romans.

  94. Nero: In AD 67 Nero gave Greece freedom from direct rule and exemption from tribute (Syll. 814).

  95. as I have said: At ch. 10.

  96. Nabis: On Nabis and the war with him, see Philopoemen 12–15. The war began in 195 before the proclamation in Argos took place.

  97. he came to terms … slavery: See Philopoemen 15, where Plutarch attributes Flamininus’ decision to end the war to his jealousy of Philopoemen.

  98. this Arcadian fellow: Plutarch here recalls his own formulation at Philopoemen 15.

  99. abandoned the war … suffering: Similarly at Livy 34.49.1–3.

  100. 1,200 of them: Valerius Maximus (5.2.6) sets the number at 2,000, but Plutarch’s figure is taken from the calculations of Polybius (preserved for us at Livy 34.50.7): the Achaeans paid 5 minas per head, and the total amount paid was 100 talents. As there are 60 minas in every talent, the total number of slaves must have been 1,200.

  101. triumph … celebrated: In 194.

  102. glorious sight: A fuller description of the triumph is provided at Livy 34.52.

  103. Tuditanus: This name has been garbled in our manuscripts, but Tuditanus is the likeliest reading here. Several editors, however, prefer to emend to read Antias, a reference to Valerius Antias (ch. 18). Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus was consul in 129 and subsequently celebrated a triumph. He wrote a work on the Roman magistracies as well as a history, the scope and scale of which are irrecoverable. See HRR, vol. 1, pp. cci–cciii and 143–7.

  104. Philippics: Macedonian gold coins of a type first minted by Philip II (hence their name).

  105. owed … 1,000 talents: See ch. 9.

  106. later persuaded to remit payment: In 191 or 190, in recognition of Philip’s loyalty and to assure its continuance during the war with Antiochus.

  107. his son: On Demetrius see ch. 9. His restoration, like the remission of tribute, was intended to secure Macedonian loyalty.

  108. Antiochus’ arrival in Greece: In autumn 192 Antiochus crossed to Demetrias. He did not, as Plutarch indicates here, bring a large army but instead only 10,000 infantrymen, as well as a modest cavalry contingent and six elephants, all transported on sixty ships (Livy 35.43.6).

  109. long-standing … hostility towards the Roman people: See chs. 9–10. A full account of the Aetolians’ diplomatic machinations is provided by Livy (34.49.5–6 and 35.12).

  110. Manius Acilius … his legate: Manius Acilius Glabrio was consul in 191. Flamininus was appointed by the senate to serve as a legate in this campaign (Livy 36.1.8); although Plutarch fails to mention it, he was already on the spot, having been sent east with other senatorial envoys to try to diffuse Aetolian agitation and rally the Greeks against Antiochus (Livy 35.23.5–8). The Elder Cato took part in this campaign as a tribune of the soldiers (Elder Cato 12–14).

  111. Antiochus was defeated at Thermopylae: In 191. See further Elder Cato 13–14.

  112. sailed … to Asia: Antiochus retreated to Asia Minor, where in 190 he was decisively defeated at the battle of Magnesia.

  113. the consul Manius divided up the Aetolians … allowing King Philip to destroy others: More details are provided by Polybius (20.9–11) and Livy (36.27–9). In exchange for his assistance, Philip was allowed by the Romans to make territorial gains in Thessaly.

  114. Dolopians … Aperantians: People of Dolopia (modern Evrytania), a region north of Aetolia between Epirus and Thessaly. Reference to Magnesians raises the possibility of Philip’s recovering Demetrias (ch. 10). The Athamanians lived in western Thessaly and the Aperantians occupied a region southwest of Dolopia.

  115. Heraclea and was besieging Naupactus: Heraclea Trachinia was about 4 miles (6½ km) west of Thermopylae. The Romans completed their siege in 191 (Livy 36.22–4). Naupactus (modern Nafpaktos) lies at the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. This campaign is described more fully by Polybius (20.11.11) and Livy (36.30 and 36.33).

  116. intercede with the consul: That is, with Manius Acilius Glabrio.

  117. the besieged people of Naupactus … anger: A fuller account is provided at Livy 36.35.1–4.

  118. The result was … moderate treatment: See Livy 36.35.6. In fact the senate’s terms were anything but moderate (Polybius 21.2, Livy 37.1.5) and the embassy came to nothing.

  119. infuriated … because of the marriage … in p
rogress: Chalcis had fallen to Antiochus at the end of 192 (Livy 35.51). The marriage took place early in 191 (Polybius 20.8, Livy 36.11). Cleoptolemus is otherwise unknown.

  120. Manius immediately moved on Chalcis: This move into Euboea came directly after Thermopylae, and predated Manius’ confrontations with the Aetolians.

  121. accompanied by Titus: Livy (36.21.3) notes Glabrio’s swift move into Euboea and his moderation towards the towns of Euboea, but makes no mention of Flamininus’ intercession.

  122. consecrated … votive offerings to Titus: Epigraphic evidence confirms the honours to Flamininus at Chalcis: e.g. Inscriptiones Graecae XII (1915), 9.233 and 931.

  123. Delphinium: A shrine to Apollo at Delphi.

  124. clashed with … Diophanes: For the brush with Philopoemen see ch. 13 (and Philopoemen 15). His clash with Diophanes, who was general of the Achaeans in 192/1, is reported more fully at Livy 36.31.8.

  125. anger was not deep-seated … pointed remarks: This recalls Flamininus’ characterization in ch. 1.

  126. Zacynthus: The southernmost of the western Greek islands. The Achaeans had taken possession of Zacynthus after the battle of Thermopylae, but the Romans now claimed it and the matter was discussed at a conference held in 191 (Livy 36.31–2), at which Flamininus issued this bon mot.

  127. ‘You’ll be in danger … Peloponnese’: Also reported at Moralia 197b and Livy 36.32.6–8.

  128. meeting … to discuss terms for a … peace: At Nicaea in 198 (cf. ch. 5). Plutarch draws this story from Polybius (18.7.5–6); he reports it again at Moralia 197b.

  129. Deinocrates: A leading Messenian statesman and a friend of Flamininus, but also responsible for the death of Philopoemen (Philopoemen 20). Our fullest account of him comes from Polybius (23.5.1–18); see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 3, pp. 220–23. His embassy to Rome dates to 183.

  130. envoys from Antiochus: At Aegium in November 192 (Livy 35.48–50). The remark (‘So you too, you men of Achaea …’) is also preserved at Moralia 197c.

  131. censor: Flamininus won a fiercely contested election to become censor for 189.

  132. Marcellus: Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the consul of 196. His father, consul for the first time in 222, is the subject of Plutarch’s Marcellus.

  133. Terentius Culleo: Probably Quintus Terentius Culleo, the praetor of 187. This is the only reference to this measure and so its purpose is not entirely clear (Plutarch’s description is not especially helpful): perhaps it required the censors to enrol the sons of freedmen as a remedy for recent abuses of the census.

  134. Scipio … Cato: On Scipio Africanus, see note 17. Since the time of his censorship in 199, Scipio had been the leading man in the senate (princeps senatus) and here Titus extends that honour. Cato is the subject of Elder Cato. His bad relations with Scipio are related in Elder Cato 3, 11, 15 and 18.

  135. excellence and pre-eminence: Scipio was named princeps senatus for the third time during Flamininus’ censorship (Livy 38.28.2). This event is simply the spark for Plutarch’s story about Lucius Scipio, since it did not occur until Cato’s censorship in 184.

  136. Lucius Flamininus: Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, the consul of 192 (ch. 3). The following incident is related in more than one variation; Elder Cato 17; Cicero, On Old Age 42; and Livy 39.42.5–39.43.5.

  137. provincial governor: Lucius Flamininus was assigned Italy and Gaul as his province in 192.

  138. lictor: A consul was attended by twelve lictors, who carried his fasces.

  139. Valerius Antias: A Roman historian of the first century BC (his precise dates are unknown); see Introduction to Romulus.

  140. wife and children: In actuality Livy’s Cato mentions only the Gaul’s wife (39.42.10).

  141. Lucius … as a favour to his boyfriend: So Livy 39.42.7–12, where the man is a Gallic noble.

  142. said … to aggravate his charge: Plutarch is sufficiently aware of rhetorical technique to distrust invective.

  143. condemned prisoner: Cf. Cicero, On Old Age 42.

  144. censor: In 184, along with Lucius Valerius Flaccus (Elder Cato 16–19).

  145. challenged … truth of anything that had been said: Cato was challenging Lucius to make a sponsio, i.e. to swear on oath that the charge was false (Livy 39.43.5).

  146. Cato’s old enemies: Of whom he had many. See Elder Cato 19 and Livy 39.44.8–9 for the opposition he confronted during his censorship; Flamininus’ opposition is not specifically cited by Livy.

  147. lawsuits against him: Elder Cato 15 mentions the many lawsuits Cato faced during his career (but there is no mention of Flamininus).

  148. I cannot describe this … his punishment: Plutarch does not often intrude into his narrative so explicitly as this. Here he criticizes Flamininus for persisting in his anger, which, as Plutarch has informed the reader, was contrary to his natural inclination (ch. 17).

  149. front seats … special dress: These senatorial seats were introduced only in 194 (Livy 34.44.5). Senators wore distinctive shoes and tunics adorned by a broad purple stripe.

  150. one occasion … sit with them: This incident is also described at Elder Cato 17.

  151. served a further term as tribune: That is, as a tribune of the soldiers. Plutarch is the only evidence for this, but it is credible: at this time distinguished men, even ex-consuls, served as military tribunes (as the Elder Cato did in 191).

  152. youthfulness … hounded Hannibal: This is misleading. In 183, when Flamininus hounded Hannibal (see below), he was still only forty-six.

  153. Hannibal had fled … from … Carthage: On account of Roman pressure, in 195.

  154. battle in Phrygia: The battle of Magnesia of 190, which in fact took place in Lydia rather than Phrygia. The terms of Antiochus’ subsequent peace with Rome, settled in the Treaty of Apamea in 188, required him to hand over Hannibal (Livy 38.38.18).

  155. Prusias: Prusias I Cholus (c. 230–182), king of Bithynia. Hannibal arrived at his court in 188. From 187 to 183 Prusias was at war with Rome’s ally Eumenes II of Pergamum, in which war Hannibal won at least one victory for Prusias. In the end, however, the Romans stepped in, sending Flamininus to settle the war to Eumenes’ advantage.

  156. some other matter: See previous note.

  157. infuriated … would not relent: Livy (39.51.2–3) leaves open the possibility that the initiative for Hannibal’s death came from Prusias himself, eager as he was to gratify Flamininus and Rome. If Plutarch knew this version (and he probably did), he ignored it.

  158. Libyssa: Modern Gebze, on the Propontis (or Sea of Marmara).

  159. Themistocles … bull’s blood: Themistocles (c. 524–459), Athenian politician and general and the subject of Plutarch’s Themistocles; this story is reported at Themistocles 31. Midas was a legendary king of Phrygia, who killed himself when threatened by the Cimmerians in the early seventh century BC; Plutarch mentions the story at Moralia 168f. Bull’s blood, of course, is not poisonous.

  160. Livy says: Livy 39.51.9–10.

  161. ‘men who sent secretly to Pyrrhus … poison him’: Told more fully at Pyrrhus 21. This happened in 279, at which point Pyrrhus was indeed victorious, having defeated the Romans at Heraclea in 280.

  162. meeting in Ephesus: This event, probably a fiction, is reported in several sources (e.g. Livy 35.14.5–12) and is routinely dated to 193.

  163. Africanus: The use of the name is pointed, since Scipio was surnamed Africanus on account of his victory over Hannibal.

  164. Aristonicus … Eumenes: Aristonicus (d. 128) may have been an illegitimate son of Eumenes II of Pergamum. After the death of Attalus III, who left the kingdom to Rome, he led an insurrection (133–129), during which he asserted his royal claim and enrolled soldiers from every social order, including slaves. In the end, he was defeated and executed in Rome. The allegation that he was the son of a lyre-player may be nothing more than contemporary propaganda.

  165. Mithridates … land and sea: Mithridates VI of Pontus fought a series of wars with Rome. During th
e First Mithridatic War (88–85) he fought both Lucius Cornelius Sulla (c. 138–78), the future dictator, and Gaius Flavius Fimbria, a mutinous officer later forced to commit suicide by Sulla. The Second Mithridatic War (83–81) was waged by Lucius Licinius Murena, who went on to become consul in 62 BC. During the Third Mithridatic War (73–63), Mithridates fought first Lucius Licinius Lucullus, the consul of 74 BC, and then Pompey the Great.

  166. Gaius Marius … in Rome: (c. 157–86) The great general, six times consul, was driven from Rome by Sulla in 88. He then endured a degrading escape and exile in Libya, until his return in 87, when he cruelly purged his enemies; see Plutarch’s Marius 40–44.

  167. some people say … embassy … Hannibal’s death: This is the version of Valerius Antias, as reported at Livy 39.56.7, according to whom Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, consul of 190 and victor of Magnesia, and Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, consul of 191, were the other members of this embassy (they were respectively the brother and cousin of Scipio Africanus).

  168. a peaceful death: Flamininus died in 174. We are no better informed than Plutarch about his final years.

  Notes to the Comparison of Philopoemen and Titus Flamininus

  1. many others: Presumably men like the ones mentioned at Flamininus 11 (i.e. Agesilaus, Lysander, Nicias and Alcibiades).

  2. gone away to Crete: Philopoemen’s second spell in Crete, 200/199–194/3 (Philopoemen 13).

  3. set her peoples … free: Flamininus 7–8 (victory at Cynoscephalae) and 10–12 (the liberation of the Greeks announced in 196).

  4. Philopoemen killed more Greeks … than Titus killed Macedonians: Neither Life has given many casualty numbers and in any case Plutarch is probably relying as much on his impressions as his calculations.

  5. one man’s … the other’s: Flamininus’ … Philopoemen’s.

  6. anger was swift: Flamininus 1 and 17; Plutarch here ignores Flamininus’ conduct in chs. 17–21.

  7. Titus ensured … Aetolians: Flamininus 9 (Philip) and 15 (Aetolians).