Jerusalem: The Biography

  7 Al-Mansur. Take surname titles to separate themselves: Ibn Khaldun 181; Abbasid black banners and change to green 215. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 180–1. Kennedy, Conquests 11–50, including the dead Alids 16; Baghdad 133; court life 139; House of Wisdom/translation of Greek texts 252–60. House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Jonathan Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Al-Mansur and al-Mahdi visits to Jerusalem: Peters, Jerusalem 215–17. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Mansur and meanness of restorations: Mujir 59. Mahdi visit: Muqaddasi 41–2. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 112–13. Decline in Jerusalem/quote of Thaur ibn Yazid: Neuwirth, OJ 77–93.

  8 Haroun al-Rashid and Charlemagne. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 181–2. Kennedy, The Court of the Caliphs: The Rise and Fall of Islam’s Greatest Dynasty 51–84. Peters, Jerusalem 217–23, including Benedict Chronicle and Memorandum on the Houses of God and Monasteries in the Holy City, listing staff and taxes; and Bernard, Itinerary. Hywel Williams, Emperor of the West: Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire, 230–3. William of Tyre, Deeds Done Beyond the Sea (henceforth William of Tyre) 1.64–5. Gift to Charlemagne: Lyons, House of Wisdom 45. On legend see: Anon., Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople. Charlemagne as David: Wickham 381.

  9 Maamun. Climax of Arab culture – marriage of al-Maamun and Buran: Ibn Khaldun 139. Maamun: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–260; House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31; Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Inscription of Maamun on al-Aqsa: Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey through Syria and Palestine. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Abbasid culture: Kennedy, Conquests 84–129; Tahirids and Abd Allah ibn Tahir liberates Jerusalem 91 and 203; sumptuous marriage 168; singing girls 173; Maamun in Syria and Egypt 208–9 and death 211–12. Maamun and House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Translation of Greek texts: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–60.

  10 Destruction of dynasty prestige and rise of Persian/Turk ghulam: Ibn Khaldun 124; title of sultan, Abbasids lose power 155 and 193; decay of Abbasids 165–6. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182–3. Al-Mutasim, peasant revolts 840s, Turkish ghulam: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 213–17; dhimmi forced to wear yellow clothing by Caliph al-Mutawwakil in 850 240. Peasant revolt 841: Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 113; Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182. Khazar debate: see K. A. Brook, The Jews of Khazaria; A. Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe; S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People; on the latest findings on Jewish genetics: ‘Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similiarity’, New York Times 9 June 2010.

  11 Ibn Tulun and Tulunids: Thierry Bianquis, ‘Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur 868–969’, in Carl F. Petry (ed.), Cambridge History of Egypt, vol 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517 (henceforth CHE 1) 86–108; the Carmatian rebellion 106–8; special role of Jerusalem 103. Karaites: Norman Stillman, ‘The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community’, in CHE 1.200. Rise of Karaites: Mann 1.60–5.

  The Turkish amir Amjur and son Ali ruled Palestine for the Abbasids from 869 and were praised by Patriarch Theodosius for tolerance: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 183. Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 84–111. Khazars: Brook, The Jews of Khazaria 96–8; Mann, 1.64. Gideon Avni: conversations with author, Khazar synagogue in Jewish Quarter quoted in Geniza. Khazars respect Jerusalem Academy: Mann 1.64–5.

  12 Ikhshids and Kafur: Bianquis, CHE 1.109–19. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 183–4. Byzantine advance on Jerusalem: John Tzimiskes text in Peters, Jerusalem 243.

  13 Ibn Killis: Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Stillman, CHE 1.206. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 184.

  14 Fatimids/Jawhar/Killis as vizier, Fatimids: Paul E. Walker, ‘The Ismaili Dawa and the Fatimid Caliphate’, in CHE 1.120–48. Paula A. Sanders, ‘The Fatimid State’, in CHE 1.151–4. Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Messianic Fatimids: Wickham 336–8. Jewish potentates: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 184. On Killis, Jewish Governor of Palestine-Syria, Christian viziers: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.33–4.

  15 Paltiel/Jews and Christians in Jerusalem under the Fatimids. On Paltiel and places of prayer in Jerusalem: Ahima’as, The Chronicle of Ahima’as 64–6, 95–7. Moses Maimonides, Code of Maimonides Book 8 Temple Service 12, 17 and 28–30. On Paltiel and family: Mann, 1.252. Fatimids pay Jewish subsidy: Peters, Jerusalem 276 – proved by al-Hakim’s cancellation. Grabar, Shape of the Holy: Jews in Jerusalem/Paltiel’s funeral attacked in 1011: 144–50, 162–8. Mourners of Zion/call for aliyah by Daniel al Kumisi: Peters, Jerusalem 227–9; Karaites 229–32. Moshe Gil, ‘Aliyah and Pilgrimage in Early Arab Period’, in Cathedra 3.162–73. Jewish Academy: Peters, Jerusalem 232–3; poverty and begging letters 233–4; place of worship – Mount of Olives – Geniza says above Absalom’s monuments 603. Pilgrimage – aura of distinction and Jewish/Christian emulation of Muslims: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55 Stillman, CHE 1.201–9. Christian pilgrimages from Egypt: Ibn al-Qalanisi, Continuation of the Chronicle of Damascus (henceforth Qalanisi) 65–7. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 118–19.

  16 Al-Muqaddasi and Islamic Jerusalem under the Fatimids: quotations are from Muqaddasi – on beauty of Dome, Haram and al-Aqsa 41–68; on mystics and cheeses 67–9; Jews and Christians 75–7; on Day of Judgement, filthy baths, water 34–7. Day of Judgement and arrival of Mahdi: Ibn Khaldun 257–8. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 119. A banana at the Dome: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 190 quotes Ibn Asakir.

  17 Al-Hakim: Christian mother – William of Tyre 1.65–7. Sanders, CHE 1.152. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 185. Islamic seeking of knowledge: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.51. Runciman 1.35–6. Mann 1.33–41. On al-Khidr shrine see William Dalrymple, From Holy Mountain 339–44. Jaber el-Atrache, ‘Divinity of al-Hakim’, Lebanon through Writers’ Eyes (eds.) T. J. Gorton and A. F. Gorton, 170–1.

  18 Holy Fire: Qalanisi 65–7. Martin Gilbert, Rebirth of a City 160. Shudder with horror – Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims, including Fulk: David C. Douglas, William the Conqueror 35–7. Runciman 1.43–9.

  19 Hakim, Holy Sepulchre and Death: Gilbert Rebirth of a City 160. Holy Fire: Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims: Runciman 1.43–9. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Qalanisi 65–7. Yahya ibn Said quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 260; Jewish persecutions, loss of subsidy 276. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 185–6. Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.1–5, 18, 34, 71. On Sweyn, Duke Robert of Normandy: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7: Tuchman 3–4. ‘Divinity of Hakim’, Lebanon 170–1.

  20 Al-Zahir and al-Mustansir, rebuilding of Holy Sepulchre, walls, Christian Quarter: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Zahir: William of Tyre 1.67–71; walls, Amalfitian hospice, Quarter 1.80–1; area of Muristan rebuilt 2.240–5. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 188. Rebuilding: Peters, Jerusalem 267; walls of Jerusalem and protection of Christian Patriarchs’ Quarter – Yahya quoted in Peters. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132–3.

  Christian pilgrimage, al-Mustansir, Jewish viziers: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Norman/Royal/aristocratic pilgrims: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7. German pilgrimage led by Arnold Bishop of Bamberg and bloodbath outside Jerusalem 1064: Peters, Jerusalem 253. Bloodbath: see Florence of Worcester, Chronicle. Age of pilgrims: Runciman 143–9. Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (henceforth Tyerman) 43. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71 and 81. Tortures and burst bowels, Urban II quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews, al-Zahir security 277. Jewish pilgrimage and travel: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55–61. Muslim pilgrimage, Nasir-i-Khusrau: all quotations are from Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey through Syria and Palestine; on Nasir, Grabar, Shape of the Holy 137–8, 145–53. Holiness of Jerusalem: Hasson, Cathedra 1.177–83. Sanctity: Ibn Khaldun 269. Consecration of haj from Jerusalem: Duri in
Asali, 118. Tustari grand viziers: Mann 1.74–6. Solomon ben Yehuda, gaon of Jerusalem 1025–51 – things ‘so bad like of which didn’t occur since the Jews returned’/on fall of Tustari; Jerusalem threatened by Arab rebels 1024–9; tolerance of al-Zahir of Jews and Karaites: Mann 1.134–6. Gaon and Nasi Daniel ben Azarya in Jerusalem eleven years 1051–62 succeeded as gaon by Elijah Hakkohen – but fled Jerusalem to Tyre: Mann 1.178–80; Arab revolt of Hassan of Banu Jarrah 1.158–71. Treaty with Byzantines: Runciman 1.35–7.

  21 Seljuks: Ibn Khaldun 252. Atsiz takes Jerusalem, revolt and storming; Tutush and Ortuqids: Solomon ben Joseph Ha-Kohen, ‘The Turkoman Defeat at Cairo’, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures January 1906. Hiyari in Azali, Jerusalem 135–7. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 186. Joshua Prawer, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 7–9. Turkish military tactics: Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross: Crusading to the Holy Land 111–14. Ortuq and arrow: Runciman 1.76; Seljuks 1.59. Muslim revival including visit of al-Ghazali and Ibn al-Arabi: Mustafa A. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 130–7. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71. Tortures, Urban II: Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews flee to Haifa then Tyre 277. Ruins of Jerusalem sites: Halevi, Selected Poems of Judah Halevi, ed. H. Brody 3–7. Maimonides, Code 28–30. Peters, Jerusalem 276–9. Muslims: Ghazali quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 279–80 and 409; Mujir 66 and 140; Nusseibeh, Country 126–7. Popular history of the Seljuks: John Freely, Storm on Horseback: Seljuk Warriors of Turkey 45–64.

  PART FIVE: CRUSADE

  1 Crusade, Godfrey, taking of Jerusalem. This account of the Crusades is based on the essential classics Steven Runciman, The Crusades; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade; Joshua Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem; Denys Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus (henceforth Pringle); the works of Benjamin Z. Kedar; and the excellent new books Christopher Tyerman, God’s War; Jonathan Phillips, Holy Warriors; and Thomas Asbridge, The Crusades; along with primary Christian sources William of Tyre, Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum and Raymond d’Aguilers, and Muslim sources Ibn al-Athir, and later Ibn Qalanisi and Usama bin Munqidh; on warfare, Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross; on life in Jerusalem, Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades.

  Raymond and Gesta are quoted in August C. Krey, The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants 242–62; al-Athir and al-Qalanisi are quoted, unless otherwise sourced, in Francesco Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades (henceforth Gabrieli). Storming: al-Athir, Gabrieli 10–11. Tyerman 109–12. 3,000 dead, smaller massacre: Benjamin Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in Western Historiography of the Crusades’, in Crusades 3 (2004) 15–75. Phillips, Warriors 24; Asbridge, Crusades 90–104. 3,000 killed on Haram and women killed in Dome of Chains: Ibn al-Arabi quoted in Benjamin Z. Kedar and Denys Pringle, ‘1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis)’, in Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 15–33. On Jerusalem image and Holy War: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 26 and 35–8; massacre 217–19. The Princes of the Crusade: Tyerman 116–25; Crusader psychopaths 87. Fragmentation of Arabs and Islamic city states – see William of Tyre and al-Athir quoted in Tyerman 343 and Grabar, Shape of the Holy 18. Runciman 1.280–5. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 137–40.

  On Crusader buildings of Jerusalem, thanks to Professor Dan Bahat who gave the author a Crusader tour. On Arnulf morals: B. Z. Kedar, ‘Heraclius’, in B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (eds), Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem 182. B. Z. Kedar, ‘A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah Ransomed from the Crusaders’, in Cathedra 2.320. OJ 281. Storming and ransoming of Jews: Prawer, Jews in the Latin Kingdom 19–40. On Jews: Mann 198–201. William of Tyre 1.379–413. The campaign: Tyerman 124–153; storming 155–64; few knights 178. Massacre: al-Athir in Gabrieli 10–11. Storming: Gesta Francorum 86–91. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1.xxiv and xxxiii and 2.vi. up to bridle reins in blood – quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 285. City population statistics: Tyerman 2–3. Turkish tactics: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 111–14; Frankish tactics 118–22.

  2 Baldwin I. This portrait is based on William of Tyre 1.416–17; Fulcher, History; Tyerman 200–7; Runciman 1.314–15 and 2.104, including Baldwin’s wives and Adelaide’s arrival in Jerusalem and Sigurd visit 92–3. ‘Saga of Sigurd’ quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 50–62.

  Building – use of Citadel, spolia from al-Aqsa for Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 73–80. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, ‘1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis)’, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Holy Sepulchre: Charles Couasnon, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20. Kroyanker 40–3. N. Kenaan, ‘Sculptured Lintels of the Crusader Church of the Holy Sepulchre’, in Cathedra 2.325. Runciman 3.370–2. The traditions and calendar, pilgrims: Tyerman 341. Holy Fire – Daniel the Abbott quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 263–5; methesep and administration of city 301. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts and courts 21–5; coronation 32–5; Golden Gate, on possible Crusader domes 63–4, citing Pringle; Crusader graves on Temple Mount 182; John of Wurzburg says ‘illustrious’ people buried near Golden Gate, Crusader style and workshop on Temple Mount 191–8. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations; True Cross 32–3; crown 94–125. On True Cross: Imad quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 136. James Fleming, Biblical Archaeology Review, January–February 1969, 30. Shanks 84–5. Red tent of king: Runciman 2.458–9; Crusader style 3.368–83. Style and reuse of Herodian stones, citadel and towers: Kroyanker 4, 37–43.

  3 Baldwin II: Tyerman 206–8. Gift for kingship: al-Qalanisi, Gabrieli 40. Jerusalem: Bahat, Atlas 90–101. Royal palaces, palace close to Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 77–80. Palace: Arnald von Harf quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 355.

  On the Orders, this is based on Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus 1050–1310; Piers Paul Read, The Templars; Michael Haag, The Templars: History and Myth; Boas, Jerusalem; and Prawer, Latin Kingdom. Templar Temple Mount: Theodorich, Description of the Holy Places 30–2. Templar traditions, rules: Anonymous Pilgrim quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 323. Military organization, knights, Turcopoles: Tyerman 220, 228 and orders 169. Orders: Boas, Jerusalem 26–30; Templar Temple Mount, baths 142–60; stables quoting John of Wurzburg and Theodorich (10,000 horses) 163; Hospitallers 156–9. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 252–79. Orders: Runciman 2.312–14. Crusaders on Temple Mount: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock 163. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. On Temple Mount: Church on Antonia site, Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Survey 204–5; Templar Hall on south-west corner of Temple Mount 260–1; Templar Augustinian Canons north of Dome. Single gate with access to Solomon’s Stables: Archaeological Park 31. On Armenian settlement and rebuilding of St James’s Cathedral after 1141: Dorfmann-Lazarev, ‘Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory’.

  4 Fulk and Melisende, based on William of Tyre 2.50–93 and 135; character of Melisende 2.283. Tyerman 207–9. Runciman 2.178, 233, 190. Coronation of Jerusalem kings: Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Old French Continuation of William of Tyre and Sources in Translation (henceforth Continuation) 15. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts 21–5; coronation 32–5. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations.

  Zangi and Edessa: al-Athir, Gabrieli 41–3 and 50–1; character and death 53–5; Qalinisi 44–50; Usamah on life in Zangi army, Zangi king of amirs 38 and 169–71. Zangi: Phillips, Warriors 75–6; Ibn Jubayr quoted on wedding 47; coronation 56–8; penalties for adultery 60–1; psalter as Fulk’s gift 69–71; Holy Sepulchre 103. Zangi, character: Asbridge, Crusades 225–7.

  5 Usamah bin Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (henceforth Usamah – scholar, cavalier, Musli
m 26; Zangi king of amirs 38; brutality of amirs 169–71; hunting with Zangi 202–3; loss of library 44; importance of Islam and jihad, father 63–4 and 202; Eastern doctors 66; Franks’ medicine 145–6; meetings with Fulk 76–7; goshawk 205–6; pilgrimage to Jerusalem 250; buying hostages 93; meeting Baldwin II 94; father cuts arm off servant 129; Frankish converts to Islam 142–3; nature of Franks’ invitation to Europe 144; at Temple 147–8; women and pubic shaving 148–50; law 151–2; Franks acclimatized to East 153; small things and death 156; victory and God 160.

  Description of markets and streets: condition of the city of Jerusalem 1187 quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 298–303. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Commerce: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 408–9. On Syrian doctors, see William of Tyre on death of Baldwin III and Amaury. Population and adoption of Eastern customs: Fulcher, History 2.vi, 6–9 and 3.xxxvii. Different peoples in Jerusalem: anonymous pilgrim in Peters 307–8. Ali al-Harawi, on pictures in Dome: Peters, Jerusalem 313–18. Templars ride out to practise daily: Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela 20–3; see also Wright, Early Travellers. Jerusalem in 1165, ‘people of all tongues’, Jews pray at Golden Gate: Benjamin of Tudela quoted in Wright 83–6. Jerusalem 1103: Saewulf quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 31–9. On festivals, City of Jerusalem guide and al-Harawi: Peters Jerusalem, 302–18.