The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined

80. Beating a wife with a belt: Johnson & Sigler, 2000.

  81. Sexual symmetry in domestic violence: Archer, 2009; Straus, 1977/1978; Straus & Gelles, 1988.

  82. Stereotype of rolling pin: Straus, 1977/1978, pp. 447–48.

  83. Kinds of marital violence: Johnson, 2006; Johnson & Leone, 2005.

  84. Men commit more serious domestic violence: Dobash et al., 1992; Graham-Kevan & Archer, 2003; Johnson, 2006; Johnson & Leone, 2005; Kimmel, 2002; Saunders, 2002.

  85. Little change in small stuff: Straus, 1995; Straus & Kantor, 1994.

  86. Decline began in 1985: Straus & Kantor, 1994, figure 2.

  87. Women’s shelters save abusive men’s lives: Browne & Williams, 1989.

  88. No reported trends for domestic violence in British Crime Survey Report: see Jansson, 2007.

  89. Cross-national differences in domestic violence: Archer, 2006a.

  90. WHO on domestic violence worldwide: Heise & Garcia-Moreno, 2002.

  91. A fifth to a half: United Nations Population Fund, 2000.

  92. Laws on violence against women: United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2003, appendix 1.

  93. Atrocities against women: Kristof & WuDunn, 2009; United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2003.

  94. Gender empowerment and individualism correlate with less violence against women: Archer, 2006a. The correlations reported in this paper did not control for affluence, but in a personal communication on May 18, 2010, Archer confirmed that both remain statistically significant when GDP per capita is entered into the regression.

  95. Pressure to end violence against women: Kristof & WuDunn, 2009; United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2003.

  96. International shaming campaigns: Nadelmann, 1990.

  97. Momentum against violence against women: Statement by I. Alberdi, “10th Anniversary Statement on the UN International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women,” UNIFEM, http://www.unifem.org/news_events/story_detail.php?StoryID=976.

  98. Universal embrace of gender equality: Pew Research Center, 2010.

  99. Muslim attitudes toward women’s empowerment: Esposito & Mogahed, 2007; Mogahed, 2006.

  100. Legendary exposures: Milner, 2000, pp. 206–8.

  101. Infanticide: Breiner, 1990; Daly & Wilson, 1988; deMause, 1998; Hrdy, 1999; Milner, 2000; Piers, 1978; Resnick, 1970; Williamson, 1978.

  102. Infanticide across cultures: Williamson, 1978. See also Daly & Wilson, 1988; Divale & Harris, 1976; Hrdy, 1999; Milner, 2000.

  103. Ten to 50 percent: Milner, 2000, p. 3; see also Williamson, 1978.

  104. “All families”: deMause, 1974, quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 2.

  105. Histories of childhood: Breiner, 1990; deMause, 1974, 1998, 2008; Heywood, 2001; Hrdy, 1999; Milner, 2000.

  106. Infanticide as “natural”: Milner, 2000, p. 537.

  107. Life history theory: Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hagen, 1999; Hawkes, 2006; Hrdy, 1999; Maynard Smith, 1988, 1998.

  108. More investment in suckling than bearing: Hagen, 1999.

  109. Sunk-cost avoidance: Maynard Smith, 1998. Exception to sunk-cost avoidance: Dawkins & Brockmann, 1980.

  110. Infanticide as triage: Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hagen, 1999; Hrdy, 1999.

  111. Empirical test of triage theory: Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 37–60.

  112. Yanomamö infanticide: Quoted in Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 51.

  113. Lack of correlation between infanticide and warring: Williamson, 1978, p. 64.

  114. Tylor: Quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 12.

  115. Filthy newborns: Plutarch, “On affection for children,” quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 508.

  116. Postpartum depression as adaptation: Hagen, 1999; Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 61–77.

  117. Personhood ceremonies: Daly & Wilson, 1988; Milner, 2000.

  118. Hundred million missing girls: Sen, 1990; Milner, 2000, chap. 8; N. D. Kristof, “Stark data on women: 100 million are missing,” New York Times, Nov. 5, 1991.

  119. Female infanticide is ancient: Milner, 2000, pp. 236–45; see also Hudson & den Boer, 2002.

  120. “if a boy gets sick”: Quoted in N. D. Kristof, “Stark data on women: 100 million are missing,” New York Times, Nov. 5, 1991.

  121. Female infanticide: Milner, 2000, chap. 8; Hrdy, 1999; Hawkes, 1981; Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 53–56.

  122. Infants in dunghills: Breiner, 1990, pp. 6–7.

  123. Infanticide in medieval and early modern Europe: Milner, 2000; Hanlon, 2007; Hynes, in press.

  124. Evolution of sex ratios: Maynard Smith, 1988, 1998.

  125. ZPG theory: Divale & Harris, 1976. Problems for the ZPG theory: Chagnon, 1997; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hawkes, 1981.

  126. Trivers-Willard theory: Trivers & Willard, 1973. Problems with the theory: Hawkes, 1981; Hrdy, 1999.

  127. Moderate support from wills: Hrdy, 1999.

  128. Rarity of son-killing: Exceptions are the Shensi of China: Milner, 2000, p. 238; the Rendille of Kenya: Williamson, 1978, note 33; poor urban workers in 17th-century Parma: Hynes, in press.

  129. Female infanticide as a free rider problem: Gottschall, 2008.

  130. Female infanticide as a vicious circle: Chagnon, 1997; Gottschall, 2008.

  131. Female infanticide and inheritance: Hawkes, 1981; Sen, 1990.

  132. Daughter = water: Quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 130.

  133. India and China today; Milner, 2000, pp. 236–45.

  134. Gynecide today, trouble tomorrow: Hudson & den Boer, 2002.

  135. Infanticides in the United States today: FBI Uniform Crime Reports, “2007: Crime in the United States,” U.S . Department of Justice, 2007, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/offenses/expanded_information/data/shrtable_02.html.

  136. Infanticidal mothers in America: Milner, 2000, p. 124; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Resnick, 1970.

  137. Prohibition of infanticide in Judaism and Christianity: Milner, 2000, chap. 2; Breiner, 1990.

  138. Mercier on newborns: Quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 512.

  139. Morality of infanticide and the human life taboo: Brock, 1993; Glover, 1977; Green, 2001; Kohl, 1978; Singer, 1994; Tooley, 1972.

  140. Infanticide distinguished from other child killings: Milner, 2000, p. 16.

  141. Leniency in infanticide: Resnick, 1970.

  142. Human mercy killing: From a memoir by Benjamin Franklin Bonney, quoted in Courtwright, 1996, pp. 118–19.

  143. Slippery slope in the Holocaust: Glover, 1999.

  144. Fuzziness of human life: Brock, 1993; Gazzaniga, 2005; Green, 2001; Singer, 1994.

  145. Frigid indifference: W. Langer, quoted by Milner, 2000, p. 68. See also Hanlon, 2007; Hynes, in press.

  146. Infanticide in the Middle Ages: Milner, 2000, p. 70.

  147. Babies in latrines: Quoted in deMause, 1982, p. 31.

  148. Inquisitions of servant girls: Milner, 2000, p. 71.

  149. De facto infanticide in Europe: Milner, 2000, pp. 99–107; chaps. 3–5.

  150. British coroner: Quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 100.

  151. Statistics on abortion: Henshaw, 1990; Sedgh et al., 2007.

  152. Onset of neural activity: Gazzaniga, 2005.

  153. Conceptions of the minds of fetuses and other things: Gray, Gray, & Wegner, 2007.

  154. Less corporal punishment among hunter-gatherers: Levinson, 1989; Milner, 2000, p. 267.

  155. Spare the rod: Milner, 2000, p. 257.

  156. “Spare the rod” variations: Heywood, 2001, p. 100.

  157. Corporal punishment in medieval Europe: deMause, 1998.

  158. Proportion of beaten children: Heywood, 2001, p. 100.

  159. Executing children: A. Helms, “Review of Peter Martin’s ‘Samuel Johnson: A Biography,’ ” Boston Globe, Nov. 30, 2008.

  160. German parenting: deMause, 2008, p. 10.

  161. Ancient punishments: Milner, 2000, p. 267.

  162. Japanese parenting: deMause, 2008.

  163. English lullaby: Piers, 1978, quoted in Milner, 2000, p. 266.

  164. Yi
ddish verse: Milner, 2000, pp. 386–89; see also Heywood, 2001, pp. 94–97; Daly & Wilson, 1999; Tatar, 2003.

  165. Parent-offspring conflict: Dawkins, 1976/1989; Hrdy, 1999; Trivers, 1974, 1985.

  166. German preacher: Quoted in Heywood, 2001, p. 33.

  167. Locke, Rousseau, and the revolution in childhood: Heywood, 2001, pp. 23–24.

  168. Locke: Quotes from Heywood, 2001, p. 23.

  169. Rousseau: Quotes from Heywood, 2001, p. 24.

  170. Reforms around the turn of the 20th century: Heywood, 2001; Zelizer, 1985.

  171. Economically worthless, emotionally priceless: Zelizer, 1985.

  172. Child Study movement and child welfare policies: White, 1996.

  173. Child abuse analogized to animal abuse: H. Markel, “Case shined first light on abuse of children,” New York Times, Dec. 15, 2009.

  174. Complexities in history of childhood: Heywood, 2001.

  175. Advisories against spanking: Harris, 1998/2008; Straus, 1999.

  176. Children should never, ever be spanked: Straus, 2005.

  177. Skepticism about the harmfulness of spanking: Harris, 1998/2008.

  178. Culture of honor: Nisbett & Cohen, 1996.

  179. Spanking survey: www.surveyusa.com/50StateDisciplineChild0805SortedbyTeacher.htm. “Red states” and “blue states” defined by votes in the 2004 presidential election.

  180. State-by-state differences in spanking: www.surveyusa.com/50StateDisciplineChild0805SortedbyTeacher.htm.

  181. Trends in spanking approval: Data from the General Social Survey, http://www.norc.org/GSS+Website/.

  182. Corporal punishment decline: Straus, 2001, pp. 27–29; Straus, 2009; Straus & Kantor, 1995.

  183. Declines in Europe: Straus, 2009.

  184. Corporal punishment around the world: Straus, 2009.

  185. Ethnic differences in spanking: Harris, 1998/2008.

  186. Decline in approval of spanking in all ethnic groups: Data from the General Social Survey, http://www.norc.org/GSS+Website/.

  187. Outlawing spanking: Straus, 2009.

  188. Disapproval of paddling in American schools: www.surveyusa.com/50StateDisciplineChild0805SortedbyTeacher.htm.

  189. International condemnation of corporal punishment: Human Rights Watch, 2008.

  190. Child abuse checklist: Straus & Kantor, 1995.

  191. Child abuse as a serious problem: 1976 and 1985 polls: Straus & Gelles, 1986. 1999 poll: PR Newswire, http://www.nospank.net/n-e62.htm.

  192. Rate of violent deaths of children: A. Gentleman, “ ‘The fear is not in step with reality,’ ” Guardian , Mar. 4, 2010.

  193. Columbine: Cullen, 2009.

  194. Effects of bullying: P. Klass, “At last, facing down bullies (and their enablers),” New York Times, Jun. 9, 2009.

  195. Anti-bullying movement: J. Saltzman, “Antibully law may face free speech challenges,” Boston Globe, May 4, 2010; W. Hu, “Schools’ gossip girls and boys get some lessons in empathy,” New York Times, Apr. 5, 2010; P. Klass, “At last, facing down bullies (and their enablers),” New York Times, Jun. 9, 2009.

  196. Oprah against bullying: “The truth about bullying,” Oprah Winfrey Show, May 6, 2009; http://www.oprah.com/relationships/School-Bullying.

  197. School crime and safety: DeVoe et al., 2004.

  198. Girls going wild: M. Males & M. Lind, “The myth of mean girls,” New York Times, Apr. 2, 2010; W. Koch, “Girls have not gone wild, juvenile violence study says,” USA Today, Nov. 20, 2008. See also Girls Study Group, 2008, for data through 2004.

  199. Nurture Assumption: Harris, 1998/2008; see also Pinker, 2002, chap. 19; Harris, 2006; Wright & Beaver, 2005.

  200. Food fight: S. Saulny, “25 Chicago students arrested for a middle-school food fight,” New York Times, Nov. 11, 2009.

  201. Cub Scout and 12-year-old: I. Urbina, “It’s a fork, it’s a spoon, it’s a . . . weapon?” New York Times, Oct. 12, 2009; I. Urbina, “After uproar on suspension, district will rewrite rules,” New York Times, Oct. 14, 2009. Eagle Scout: “Brickbats,” Reason, Apr. 2010.

  202. Recess coaches: W. Hu, “Forget goofing around: Recess has a new boss,” New York Times, Mar. 14, 2010.

  203. Digital disarming: Schechter, 2005.

  204. Zombies no, carrots yes: J. Steinhauer, “Drop the mask! It’s Halloween, kids, you might scare somebody,” New York Times, Oct. 30, 2009.

  205. Hate crime: Skenazy, 2009, p. 161.

  206. Nightmare on Sesame Street: Skenazy, 2009, p. 69.

  207. Child abduction panic: Skenazy, 2009; Finkelhor, Hammer, & Sedlak, 2002; “Phony numbers on child abduction,” STATS at George Mason University; http://stats.org/stories/2002/phony_aug01_02.htm.

  208. Playdate origin: Google Books, analyzed with Bookworm, Michel et al., 2011; see the caption to figure 7–1.

  209. Changes in walking and playing: Skenazy, 2009.

  210. Free-range children: Skenazy, 2009.

  211. Cairns calculation: Cited in Skenazy, 2009, p. 16.

  212. Crime-control theater: D. Bennett, “Abducted: The Amber Alert system is more effective as theater than as a way to protect children,” Boston Globe, Jul. 20, 2008.

  213. Kids hit by parents driving kids: Skenazy, 2009, p. 176.

  214. Counterproductive kidnapping alerts: D. Bennett, “Abducted: The Amber Alert system is more effective as theater than as a way to protect children,” Boston Globe, Jul. 20, 2008.

  215. Alan Turing: Hodges, 1983.

  216. Turing machines: Turing, 1936.

  217. Can machines think?: Turing, 1950.

  218. State-sponsored homophobia, past: Fone, 2000. Present: Ottosson, 2009.

  219. More homophobia against gay men: Fone, 2000. More laws against male homosexuality: Ottosson, 2006.

  220. More hate crimes against men: U.S. Department of Justice, FBI, 2008 Hate crime statistics, table 4, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2008/data/table_04.html.

  221. Biology of homosexuality: Bailey, 2003; Hamer & Copeland, 1994; LeVay, 2010; Peters, 2006.

  222. Flexible females: Baumeister, 2000.

  223. Advantage in female fertility: Hamer & Copeland, 1994.

  224. Cross-cultural uncommonness of homosexuality: Broude & Greene, 1976.

  225. Cross-cultural disapproval of homosexuality: Broude & Greene, 1976.

  226. Confusing morality with disgust: Haidt, 2002; Rozin, 1997.

  227. History of homophobia: Fone, 2000.

  228. Enlightenment rethinking of homosexuality: Fone, 2000.

  229. State-sponsored homophobia: Ottosson, 2006, 2009.

  230. Pillay: Quoted in Ottosson, 2009.

  231. Kennedy opinion: Lawrence v. Texas (02–102), 2003, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/02–102.ZO.html.

  232. Roger Brown: Pinker, 1998.

  233. Attitudes on homosexuality: Gallup, 2008.

  234. Effects of knowing a gay person: Gallup, 2009.

  235. “Gay? Whatever, dude”: Gallup, 2002.

  236. FBI hate-crime statistics: http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/civilrights/hate.htm.

  237. Problems with FBI hate-crime statistics: Harlow, 2005.

  238. Hate-crime statistics for 2008: FBI, 2008 Hate crime statistics, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2008/index.html. Crime statistics for 2008: FBI, 2008 Crime in the United States, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2008/index.html.

  239. Hate-crime homicides: FBI, 2008 Hate crime statistics, http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2008/index.html. There were 115 hate-crime homicides between 1996 and 2005, and about a fifth of them targeted homosexuals.

  240. Scientists believe animals feel pain: Herzog, 2010, p. 209.

  241. History of treatment of animals: Gross, 2009; Harris, 1985; Herzog, 2010; Spencer, 2000; Stuart, 2006.

  242. Human carnivory: Boyd & Silk, 2006; Harris, 1985; Herzog, 2010; Wrangham, 2009a.

  243. Carnivory and human evolution: Boyd & Silk, 2006; Cosmides & Tooby, 1992; Tooby & DeVore, 1987.

  244. Meat hunger, feasting, and carnality: Boyd & Silk, 20
06; Harris, 1985; Symons, 1979.

  245. Cuteness and conservation: Herzog, 2010.

  246. Hopi cruelty to animals: Brandt, 1974.

  247. Roast turtle recipe: www.nativetech.org/recipes/recipe.php?recipeid=211.

  248. Larders on the hoof: Wrangham, 2009a.

  249. Kicking and eating dogs: Gray & Young, 2011; quote from C. Turnbull.

  250. Aristotle: Quoted in Stuart, 2006, p. xviii.

  251. Celsus: Quoted in Spencer, 2000, p. 210.

  252. Galen: Quoted in Gross, 2009.

  253. Aquinas: Quoted in Gross, 2009.

  254. Mind has no parts: Descartes, 1641/1967.

  255. Early modern vivisection: Spencer, 2000, p. 210.

  256. Seventeenth-century tenderization: P.C.D. Brears, The gentlewoman’s kitchen, 1984, quoted in Spencer, 2000, p. 205.

  257. Seventeenth-century factory farming: P. Pullar, Consuming passions, 1970, quoted in Spencer, 2000, p. 206.

  258. Motives for vegetarianism: Herzog, 2010; Rozin et al., 1997; Spencer, 2000; Stuart, 2006.

  259. Morality equated with cleanliness and asceticism: Haidt, 2002; Rozin et al., 1997; Shweder et al., 1997.

  260. You are what you eat: Rozin, 1996.

  261. Vegetarianism and romanticism: Spencer, 2000; Stuart, 2006.

  262. Cockfighting and class warfare: Herzog, 2010.

  263. Jewish dietary laws: Schechter, Greenstone, Hirsch, & Kohler, 1906.

  264. Early vegetarianism: Spencer, 2000.

  265. Sacred cows: Harris, 1985.

  266. Nazism and animal rights: Herzog, 2010; Stuart, 2006.

  267. Voltaire: Quoted in Spencer, 2000, p. 210.

  268. Animal rights as laughing matter: N. Kristof, “Humanity toward animals,” New York Times, Apr. 8, 2009.

  269. Nineteenth-century animal rights: Gross, 2009; Herzog, 2010; Stuart, 2006.

  270. Orwell on food cranks: The road to Wigan Pier, quoted in Spencer, 2000, pp. 278–79.

  271. Takeoff in the 1970s: Singer, 1975/2009; Spencer, 2000.

  272. Brophy: Quoted in Spencer, 2000, p. 303.

  273. Animal Liberation: Singer, 1975/2009.

  274. Expanding Circle: Singer, 1981/2011.

  275. V-Frog: K. W. Burton, “Virtual dissection,” Science, Feb. 22, 2008.

  276. Cockfighting: Herzog, 2010, pp. 155–62.

  277. Bullfight blackout: D. Woolls, “Tuning out tradition: Spain pulls live bullfights off state TV,” Boston Globe, Aug. 23, 2007.