Jerusalem: The Biography
Nachmanides: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 160–1, 252–3. King Hethum II: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Mamluk as Islam’s Templars: Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 294. Baibars, Aibek and Shajar diamonds, clogs: Phillip, Warriors 258–69. Khalidi Library: author interview with Haifa Khalidi; Jocelyn M. Ajami, ‘A Hidden Treasure’, in Saudi Aramco World Magazine.
PART SIX: MAMLUK
1 Baibars in power: Irwin 37–42 and 45–58. Tyerman 727–31, 806–17. Runciman 3.315–27. Mamilla – the Zawiya al-Qalandariyya and Turba al-Kabakayya (tomb of exiled Governor of Safed, al-Kabaki): Asali in OJ 281–2. On Mamluk rise: this account of the Mamluks is based on Linda S. Northrup, ‘The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate’, in CHE 1.242–89, especially on nature of Mamluk relationships 251; quotation from Ibn Khaldun (grouse/House of War) 242; Baibars military power 259; Mamluk favourite Sufism vs Taymiyya 267; pressure on Christians and Jews 271–2; Baibars victory over Mongols, Crusaders, Seljuks 273–6. Mamluk culture, on horseback, rules: Stillman, ‘The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community’, CHE 1.209, and Jonathan P. Berkey, ‘Culture and Society during the Middle Ages’, CHE 1.391. Mamluk emblems, Baibars’ lions: Irene A. Bierman, CHE 1.371–2. Baibars at war: Ibn Az-Zahir quoted in Gabrieli 307–12; sarcastic letter on Cyprus campaign 321. Burns, Damascus 198–200. Baibars’ death: Runciman 3.348. Jerusalem/Baibars: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 58–9, 66, 77. Donald P. Little, ‘1260–1516: The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule – History,’ in Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, ‘The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule – Architecture’, in Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Baibars builds Khan al-Zahir: Mujir 239. Baibars’ violent, perverted Sufi adviser Sheikh Khadir: Irwin 54. Asali, OJ 281–2. Cathedra 1.198. Edward I Crusade: Tyerman 810–12; Runciman 3.242–3. M. Prestwich, Edward I, 66 and 119.
2 Qalawun, Ashraf Khalil, Nasir Muhammad: the portrait of Qalawun is based on Linda Northrup, From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Mansur Qalawun and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria, and on Irwin. Irwin 63–76. Jerusalem titles: Northrup, From Slave to Sultan 175. Repair of al-Aqsa roof: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77 and 129. Khalil and Acre: Irwin 76–82. Fall of Acre: Runciman 3.387–99, 403–5, 429.
3 Ramban and other Jewish visitors: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 155–61 and 241. Peters, Jerusalem 363 and 531. Minaret: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 513.
4 Armenians and Mongols 1300: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Reuven Amitai, ‘Mongol Raids into Palestine’, JRAS 236–55. Niccolo of Poggibonsi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 410.
5 Mamluk Jerusalem: this is based on Burgoyne’s Mamluk Jerusalem; Irwin on Mamluk politics; Kroyanker. Nasir visit 1317 and building: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77–85; Sufis 419–21; Nasir and Tankiz 278–97 and 223–33; Citadel 85; Mamluk style 89; blind Ala al-Din 117; tradition of Mamluk tombs from Nur al-Din 167–8. Mamluk style: Kroyanker 47–58. On building: Drory, Cathedra 1.198–209. Citadel rebuilt: Hawari, OJ 493–518.
Nasir Muhammad: this portrait is based on Irwin 105–21, including Irwin quote greatest and nastiest. On Nasir and killing of amirs: Ibn Battutah, Travels 18–20; on Jerusalem 26–8. Nasir: Burns, Damascus 201–16. Administration: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 187–9; on Muslim literature of fadail; 193–5, Sufis 191–2. On Nasir waqfs, building, Mujir 102; on parades in Jerusalem 181–2. Irwin: Mamluk executions 86; on religious jurist Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-Christian and anti-Jewish policies 97–9; Mongols 99–104. Mamluk religion, Sunni and Sufism: Northrup, CHE 1.265–9; politics, rise of Nasir and autocracy 251–3. On proximity to Haram: Tankiz inscription ‘pure neighbour’: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 65. On waqfs: Ibn Khaldun quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 381. Al-Hujr poem on hell and paradise: quoted by Mujir 184. Bedouin attacks: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59; on Sufis 63. New sanctity of Jerusalem: Book of Arousing Souls by al-Fazari quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 374; Ibn Taymiyya 375–8. King Robert and Franciscans: Clare Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens: Un Enjeu pour les Puissances’, in C. Nicault (ed.) Jérusalem, 1850–1948: Des Ottomans aux Anglais, entre coexistence spirituelle et déchirure politique 177–204. Franciscans and King Robert of Apulia/Calabria: Felix Fabri, The Book of Wanderings 2.279–82. Ludolph von Suchem in Peters, Jerusalem 422. Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Irwin: brutality 86; Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-minority policies 97–9; Mongol invasion 99–104.
6 Ibn Khaldun and Tamurlane: Ibn Khaldun 5, 39, 269. Walter J. Fischel, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane 14–17, 45–8. Jerusalem ulema offer keys: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59. Local Jerusalems: Anu Mand, ‘Saints’ Corners in Medieval Livonia’, in Alan V. Murray, Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier 191–223.
7 Non-Muslim Jerusalem under late Mamluks: Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87; Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Stillman, CHE 1.209. New minarets at Salahiyya Khanqah in 1417: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 517; on Jews 64 – on tranquillity – Isaac ben Chelo 1374; on trades Elijah of Ferrara. New minarets over Christian and Jewish shrines: Mujir 69, 163, 170; attack on Christians 1452, 254–6. A. David, ‘Historical Significance of Elders Mentioned in Letters of Rabbi Obadiah of Bertinaro’, and Augusti Arce, ‘Restrictions upon Freedom of Movement of Jews in Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 2.323–4. Prayers at Golden Gate: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 192; population and prayers, Meshullam of Voltera 408; Obadiah, prayers at gates 408; gradual ruin, jackals, attacks during drought, Obadiah’s disciple, seventy families, Jewish study house near Western Wall?, facing Temple on Olives 392, 473, 407–9; Meshuallam and Obadiah, Jewish pilgrims 407–9; Isaac ben Joseph 1334 on French Jews, law studies, Kabbala 474–5. Jewish prayers at Zechariah tomb, cemetery, and visit to the gates, Huldah, Golden Gate: Archaeological Park 36, 98, 107.
Christians: Armenians and Jaqmaq: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 5. On visit to Haram in disguise, interest in others and learning phrases: Arnold von Harff quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 406–7. Governor’s house and concubines: Fabri, Book of Wanderings 1.451; Barsbay and Jewish bid for Tomb of David 1.303–4; rules for pilgrims 1.248–54; entering Sepulchre, hair, stalls, Saracens, bodies, graffiti, traders, exhaustion, stress, questions 1.299, 341, 363, 411–15, 566–7, 2.83–7. History of Franciscans: Elzear Horn, Ichnographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae 81–3. Pay or beaten to death: Niccolo di Poggibonsi (1346) quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 434; way of the Cross 437; on Mount Zion, King Rupert etc.: Elzear Horn quoted at 369; burning of four monks 1391, 459; no entry on horseback, Bertrandon de la Brocquière 1430s, 470. Henry IV: Tuchman 45. Henry V: Christopher Allmand, Henry V 174. 8 Qaitbay. Parades: Mujir 182; beauty 183, quotes Ibn Hujr; Qaitbay visit 142–4, 288. Ashrafiyya and sabil: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 78–80, 589–608; royal residence Tankiziyya 228. Kroyanker 47. Qaitbay and omelette: Peters, Jerusalem 406. Door of Aqsa: Goldhill, City of Longing 126. Drory, Cathedra 1.1196–7. Governor’s house and concubines: Fabri, Book of Wanderings 1.451; also Qaitbay allows refurbishment of Sepulchre 1.600–2; town, Obadiah on Jerusalem Jews 1487: Peters, Jerusalem 475–7. Al-Ghawry: Carl F. Petry, ‘Late Mamluk Military Institutions and Innovation’, in CHE 1.479–89. Rise of Ottomans: Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923 (henceforth Finkel) 83–4.
PART SEVEN: OTTOMAN
1 Selim the Grim. Fall of Mamluk Sultan Ghawri: Petry, CHE 1.479–89. Rise of Ottomans – taking the city, desire of all possessors, wars, possession of Padishah Sultan: Evliya Celebi, Evliya Tshelebi’s Travels in Palestine (henceforth Evliya) 55–9 and 85; Evliya Celebi, An Ottoman Traveller 317. Selim’s rise, character, death: Finkel 83–4.
2 Suleiman, walls, gates, fountains, citadel: this account is based on Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (eds), Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City, 1517–1917 (OJ: volume one unless otherwise stated). Amnon Cohen, ‘1517–1917 Haram al-Sherif: The Temple Mount under Ottoman Rule’, in Sacred Esplanade 211–16. Bahat, Atlas 118??
?22. Citadel and Haram, Suleiman’s dream, Sinan in charge of works, beauty of Suleiman’s works: Evliya 63–75; Evliya Celebi, An Ottoman Traveller 323–7 including Suleiman dreams and Sinan. Roxelana waqf: Dror Zeevi, An Ottoman Century: The District of Jerusalem in the 1600s 27. Sultan’s Pool, Archeological Park 128. Hawari, OJ 493–518. Fountains: OJ 2 and 2.15. Planned visit 1553 of Suleiman: OJ 2.709–10. Fountains: Khadr Salameh, ‘Aspects of the Sijills of the Shari’a Court in Jerusalem’, in OJ 103–43. Suleiman fountains, population Haram: OJ 4–8. Spolia in Jaffa Gate: Boas, Jerusalem 52. Suleiman and Roxelana, political ethos: Finkel 115–18, 129–30; 133, 144–5, 148–50. Solomon of his age, politics, imperial projection: David Myres, ‘An Overview of the Islamic Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem’, OJ 325–54. Abraham Castro, gates, Sinan planner, Archeological Park 8. Walls, second Solomon: Yusuf Natsheh, ‘The Architecture of Ottoman Jerusalem’, in OJ 583–655. Urban renewal, number of tiles, and Dome/al-Aqsa: Beatrice St Laurent, ‘Dome of the Rock: Restorations and Significance, 1540–1918’, in OJ 415–21. Khassaki Sultan project: OJ 747–73. David Myres, ‘Al-Imara al-Amira: The Khassaki Sultan 1552’, in OJ 539–82. Ottoman style: Hillenbrand, OJ 15–23. Hereditary architect dynasty of al-Nammar: Mahmud Atallah, ‘The Architects in Jerusalem in the 10th–11th/16th–17th Centuries’, in OJ 159–90.
Jewish Jerusalem: Selim, Suleiman reigns, sees Wailing Wall as place of worship – in 1488 Rabbi Obadiah does not mention Western Wall as site of prayer but Rabbi Israel Ashkenazi in 1520 says he prayed there and by 1572 Rabbi Isaac Luria was praying there: Miriam Frenkel, ‘The Temple Mount in Jewish Thought’, in Sacred Esplanade 351. Rabbi Moses of Basola, in Peters, Jerusalem 483–7; House of Pilate, one synagogue, David Reubeni of Arabia 490–2; population 484. Asali, Jerusalem 204. Yusuf Said al-Natsheh, ‘Uninventing the Bab al-Khalil Tombs: Between the Magic of Legend and Historical Fact’, JQ 22–3, Autumn/Winter 2005.
Franciscans: Boniface of Ragusa, St Saviour’s, Way of Cross develops: Horn, Ichnographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae 160–6. Ottoman repairs on Haram: St Laurent, OJ 415–21. Economy: Amnon Cohen, Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem 1–124.
3 Duke of Naxos: Cecil Roth, The House of Nasi: The Duke of Naxos 17–28, 75–111; Duke of Mytilene 205. Brenner 142–3. Finkel 161. Bedouin attack: Cohen, Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem 120 and 166. French consuls and constant changes of praedominium: Bernard Wasserstein, Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City (henceforth Wasserstein) 15–23. Kabbalists such as Shalom Sharabi in Jerusalem: Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem: Rebirth of a City 125; early Jerusalemites such as Meyugars family. Kuski family from Georgia arrived eighteenth century: conversation with Gideon Avni. Yehuda ha Hasid and Ashkenazi immigrants: Hurva Synagogue, Goldhill, City of Longing 167. French consul from Sidon, fighting between Christian sects, disdain for Orthodox feigned body of Christ with spices and powders, fancied corpse, tattoos of pilgrims, Holy Fire, Bedlam and burnt beards: Henry Maundrell, A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 1697 80–100 and 125–30. Muslim attitudes to Easter (Feast of Red Egg); and Church: Evliya, Ottoman Traveller 330–7 and 352. Way of the Cross develops: Peters, Jerusalem 437.
4 Ridwan and Farrukh, seventeenth century: Zeevi, Ottoman Century 20–5; Ridwan 35–1; Farrukhs 43–56; downfall 57–61. Ridwan building on Haram, OJ 831–57. Abdul-Karim Rafeq, Province of Damascus 1723–83 57. Druze chieftain threatens Palestine: Finkel 179. Suicidal Christians: Peters, Jerusalem 461. Way of the Lord/Stations of the Cross: Horn, Ichnographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae 160–86. Sepulchre, Henry Timberlake in Peters, Jerusalem 508–9; Sanderson 488–90, 510–15. Commerce: George Hintlian, ‘Commercial Life of Jerusalem’, in OJ 229–34: Cohen, Sacred Esplanade 211–16. French praedominium: Wasserstein 15–23.
5 Christians early seventeenth century. George Sandys, A Relation of a Journey begun AD 1610 147–9, 154–73. Sandys and American views of Jews and Jerusalem: Hilton Obenzinger, American Palestine: Melville, Twain, and the Holy Land Mania 14–23. Timberlake in jail: Peters, Jerusalem Peters, 511–2; John Sanderson accused of being Jew 512–14. American Puritans, Cromwell, End of Days and conversion: MacCulloch 717–25. Oren, Power; Sandys, Bradford and Mayflower quotation, early Awakenings 80–3. Mysticism: Evliya, Ottoman Traveller 330–7. Cohen, Sacred Esplanade 211–26. Armenian visitor Jeremiah Keomurdjian reports Easter parade led by Pasha of Jerusalem with drums and trumpets: Kevork Hintlian, ‘Travellers and Pilgrims in the Holy Land: The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem in the 17th and 18th Centuries’, in Anthony O’Mahony (ed.), The Christian Heritage in the Holy Land 149–59. Cromwell, Menasseh bin Israel: Brenner 124–7. Bible as national epic – Thomas Huxley quoted in Tuchman 81; on Sanderson and Timberlake, on Cromwell and return of Jews 121–45. Zeevi, Ottoman Century 20–5; Ridwan 35–41; Farrukh 43–56; downfall 57–61. Rafeq, Province of Damascus 57. Praedominium: Wasserstein 15–23.
6 Sabbatai: this account is based on Gershom G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism; on G. G. Scholem, Sabbatai Zevi: The Mystical Messiah; on David Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean; on Brenner. Scholem, Mysticism 3–8, Zohar 156–9, 205, 243; influence of Spanish exodus and Isaac Luria 244–6; Sabbatai 287–324. Mazower, Salonica 66–78. Kabbalists such as Shalom Sharabi in Jerusalem: Gilbert, Rebirth 125. Yehuda ha Hasid, Hurva Synagogue: Goldhill, City of Longing 167. Sabbatai: Finkel 280.
7 Evliya: portrait is based on Robert Dankoff, An Ottoman Mentality: The World of Evliya Çelebi; Evliya Celebi, An Ottoman Traveller 330–7 including Easter at the church; Jerusalem as the Kaaba of the poor and Dervishes 332; and on Tshelebi, Travels in Palestine. Dankoff, Çelebi 9–10; quote on longest and fullest travel book 9; uncle tomb in Jerusalem 22; education 31; courtier and page of Murad IV 33–46; female circumcision 61; Dervish 117; sex 118–19; unfair executions 139; as Falstaff and shitty martyr 142–5, 151; checking myths on Solomon ropes and Holy Fire 197–8. Evliya, Travels in Palestine 55–94. Sufism: Mazower, Salonica 79–82. Sufism and Islamic customs on entering/touring shrines: Ilan Pappe, Rise and Fall of a Palestinian Dynasty: the Husaynis 1700–1948 (henceforth Pappe) 26–7. Laxness on Haram, Qashashi, Jewels on the Excellence of Mosques quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 496–8. Zeevi Ottoman Century quotes criticism of Abu al-Fath al-Dajani on conduct on Haram 25–8. Laxness on Haram: Claudia Ott, ‘The Songs and Musical Instruments of Ottoman Jerusalem’ in OJ 305. Ill-treatment of Christian pilgrims, Timberlake in jail: Peters, Jerusalem 511–12. Fighting, Holy Fire: Maundrell, Journey 80–100, 125–30. Dangers for Jewish pilgrims: Abraham Kalisker quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 525; Ashkenazi Jews immigration 1700, Gedaliah quoted at 526–34; use of Wailing Wall, Moses Yerushalmi and Gedaliah 528. Minna Rozen, ‘Relations between Egyptian Jewry and the Jewish Community in Jerusalem in 17th Century’, in A. Cohen and G. Baer (eds), Egypt and Palestine 251–65. Cohen, Sacred Esplanade 216–26. Gilbert, Rebirth 125. Hurva: Goldhill, City of Longing 167. Western struggle for praedominium: Wasserstein 15–23. Zeevi, Ottoman Century 20–5; 35–41; 43–56; downfall 57–61. Christian sects, rivalry of Powers and praedominium: Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens’, in Nicault, Jérusalem 177–204.
8 Naqib al-Ashraf revolt: Minna Rozen, ‘The Naqib al-Ashraf Rebellion in Jerusalem and its Repercussions on the City’s Dhimmis’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 18/2, November 1984, 249–70. Adel Manna, ‘Scholars and Notables: Tracing the Effendiya’s Hold on Power in 18th-Century Jerusalem’, JQ 32, Autumn 2007. Butris Abu-Manneh, ‘The Husaynis: Rise of a Notable Family in 18th-Century Palestine’, in David Kushner (ed), Palestine in Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation 93–100; and Pappe 23–30. Fall of the Ashkenazis: Gedaliah quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 530–4. Ottoman change in attitude to Jews: Finkel 279. Zeevi, Ottoman Century 75. M. Hawari, OJ 498–9, shelling of Dome. Gilbert, Rebirth 125. Goldhill, City of Longing 167. Jewish pilgrims Abraham Kalisker quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 525; Ashkenazi Jews 526–34; Wall, Moses Yerushalmi, Gedaliah 528. Wasserstein 15–23.
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bsp; 9 The Families/early to late eighteenth century: Adel Manna, ‘Scholars and Notables Tracing the Effendiya’s Hold on Power in 18th Century Jerusalem’, JQ 32, Autumn 2007. On change of name: Papper 25–38 Illan Pappe, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Husaynis’, Part 1, JQ 10, Autumn 2000. Butrus Abu-Manneh, ‘The Husaynis: Rise of a Notable Family in 18th Century Palestine’, in David Kushner (ed.). Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation 93–100. Thanks to Adel Manna and also to Mohammad al-Alami and Bashir Barakat for sharing his research into the origins of the Families. Zeevi, Ottoman Century 63–73. A. K. Rafeq, ‘Political History of Ottoman Jerusalem’, OJ 25–8. Families, name changes, religious background, Alamis, Dajanis, Khalidis, Shihabis, al-Nammars: Mohammad al-Alami, ‘The Waqfs of the Traditional Families of Jerusalem during the Ottoman Period’, in OJ 145–57. Hereditary architect dynasty of al-Nammar: Atallah, OJ 159–90. Lawrence Conrad, ‘The Khalidi Library’, in OJ 191–209. Sari Nusseibeh, Country 1–20, killing of two Nusseibeh tax collectors by Husseinis and marriage alliance 52. Nashashibi family Mamluk origins: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 60. Families build monuments on the Haram: Khalwat al-Dajani, Sabil al-Husseini, Sabil al-Khalidi –OJ 2.963, 966, 968. Alamis and house: author interview with Mohammad al-Alami. On family name changes and origins, Hazem Zaki Nusseibeh, Jerusalemites 398–9.