Jerusalem: The Biography

  Christians and Jews: sects in Sepulchre, food, diseases, squalid lavatories, Greek vomit: Horn, Ichnographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae 60–78. Bells, strings, lines, 300 people in Sepulchre: Henry Timberlake quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 508–9. Fighting, Holy Fire: Maundrell, Journey 80–100, 125–30. Church like a prison: Evliya Celebi, Ottoman Traveller 332. Holy Week riots 1757: Peters, Jerusalem 540. Ottoman repairs on Haram: St Laurent, OJ 415–21. Rise of Ayan Notables: Amnon Cohen, Palestine in the 18th Century 1–10; instability of Ottoman garrison and fighting and debauchery 271–80. Jerusalem promised by Bulutkapan Ali to Russia: Finkel 407–9; treaty 1774 with Russia 378–9. Most evil people: Constantin Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie 332.

  10 Zahir al-Umar: Rafeq, OJ 28–9. D. Crecelius, ‘Egypt’s Reawakening Interest in Palestine’, in Kushner, Palestine in Late Ottoman Period 247–60; Cohen 12–19 and 92, including plan to take Jerusalem, 47; Zahir’s North African troops 285; Vali’s expedition, the dawra 147–250. Pappe 35–8. Eugene Rogan, The Arabs: A History (henceforth Rogan) 48–53. Zahir as ‘first King of Palestine’: Karl Sabbagh, Palestine: A Personal History 26–46. Bulutkapan Ali: Finkel 407–9; Russia 378–9.

  PART EIGHT: EMPIRE

  1 Napoleon Bonaparte and Jazzar Pasha. Rise and tortures and mutilations: Constatin de Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie 235. Edward Daniel Clarke, Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa 2.1.359–88, 2.2.3–5. Voyage and Travels of HM Caroline Queen of Great Britain 589–91. Cohen, Palestine in the 18th Century 20–9, 68–70, 285. Pappe 38–46. Finkel 399–412. Krämer 61–3. Nathan Schur, Napoleon in the Holy Land (henceforth Schur) 17–32. Paul Strathern, Napoleon in Egypt (henceforth Strathern) 185, 335–7.

  2 Napoleon in Palestine: this account is based on Schur and Strathern. Jaffa massacre Schur 67; Acre 140–6; retreat 163; Governor of Jerusalem in Jaffa 163–7. Strathern, origins of expedition 6–17; siege of Acre 336–46; Solomon’s Temple 317; Jaffa massacre 326. Jewish offer: Schur 117–21. Strathearn 352–6. Napoleon’s tent: Hintlian, JQ 2, 1998. Pappe on Jerusalem Families: 46–51.

  3 Sidney Smith – this account of his life is based on: Tom Pocock, A Thirst for Glory: The Life of Admiral Sir Sidney Smith, in Acre, Jaffa, Jerusalem 100–20. Also: John Barrow, The Life and Correspondence of Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith 207. Strathern 337–40; Napoleon’s retreat 371–81; killing of sick 378; Kléber 409. Franciscan welcome in Jerusalem: Peter Shankland, Beware of Heroes: Admiral Sir S. Smith 91–5. Smith’s vanity, talking of himself: Colonel Bunbury quoted in Flora Fraser, The Unruly Queen: The Life of Queen Caroline 136. March into Jerusalem: Clarke, Travels in Various Countries 2.1.520. James Finn, Stirring Times (henceforth Finn) 157. Edward Howard, The Memoirs of Sir Sidney Smith 146. Old Jazzar: Schur 171. 1808 fire in Sepulchre: Peters, Jerusalem 542. Population by 1806 – 8,000: OJ 4–5. Jerusalem and Gaza same population, c. 8,000 in 1800: Krämer 41–4. Jazzar versus Gaza: Pappe 47–51.

  4 Early visitors and adventures: N. A. Silberman, Digging for Jerusalem (henceforth Silberman) 19–29. Y. Ben-Arieh, Jerusalem in the 19th Century 31–67. Peters, Jerusalem 582–62. A. Elon, Jerusalem: A City of Mirrors 217. Clarke, Travels in Various Countries 2.1.393–593, 2.2.3.

  5 F. R. de Chateaubriand, Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt and Barbary during the Years 1806 and 1807 1.368–86 and 2.15–179. Chateaubriand’s servant: Julien, Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem par Julien, domestique de M. de Chateaubriand 88–9. On last of pilgrims, first of cultural imperialists including Chateaubriand: Ernst Axel Knauf, ‘Ottoman Jerusalem in Western Eyes’, in OJ 73–6. Pappe 49–53.

  6 1808 fire, Suleiman Pasha conquest: Hawari, OJ 499–500. Rafeq, OJ 29. Pappe 49–50. Suleiman and Sultan Mehmet II restore Dome tiles: Salameh, OJ 103–43. Suleiman Pasha builds Iwan al-Mahmud II, pavilion, restores Maqam al-Nabi, Nabi Daoud 1817, see Hillenbrand, OJ 14. Peters, Jerusalem 582. Cohen, Sacred Esplanade 216–26.

  7 Caroline and Hester: thanks to Kirsten Ellis for generously sharing her unpublished research on Hester and Caroline. First visit of Montefiore: Moses and Judith Montefiore, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore (henceforth Montefiore) 36–42. Abigail Green, Moses Montefiore: Jewish Liberator, Imperial Hero (henceforth Green) 74–83. Alphonse de Lamartine, Travels in the East Including Journey to the Holy Land 78–88. Pappe 60–65.

  8 Disraeli: Jane Ridley, Young Disraeli 79–97. On his various pedigrees, fantasies of Jewish settlement in conversations with Edward Stanley and his possible authorship of pre-Zionist memorandum 1878 ‘Die jüdische Frage in der orientalischen Frage’: Minna Rozen, ‘Pedigree Remembered, Reconstructed, Invented: Benjamin Disraeli between East and West’, in M. Kramer (ed.), The Jewish Discovery of Islam 49–75. Disraeli’s 1857 pre-Zionist ideas of Rothschilds buying Palestine for Jews: Niall Ferguson, World’s Banker: A History of the House of Rothschild (henceforth Ferguson) 418–22 and 1131. Pappe 66–76. Jewish life: Tudor Parfitt, Jews of Palestine 1800–1882 ch. 2. Tuchman 220–3.

  9 Mehmet Ali/Ibrahim Pasha: Finkel 427, 422–46, 428. Rogan 66–83. On Mehmet Ali regime: Khaled Fahmy in CHE 2.139–73. Pappe 66–76. Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean 63–90. William Brown Hodgson, An Edited Biographical Sketch of Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. Rafek, OJ 31–2. Judith M. Rood, ‘The Time the Peasants Entered Jerusalem: The Revolt against Ibrahim Pasha in the Islamic Court Sources’, JQ 27, Summer 2006. Judith M. Rood, ‘Intercommunal Relations in Jerusalem during Egyptian Rule 1934–41’, JQ 32, Autumn 2007 and JQ 34, Spring 2009. Jews and synagogues – Y. Ben-Arieh, Jerusalem in the 19th Century, 25–30; Ibrahim and fellahin revolt 67–70. Holy Fire: R. Curzon, Visits to the Monasteries of the Levant 192–204. Restoration of Hurva and four Sephardic synagogues: Goldhill, City of Longing 169. Montefiore, meetings with Muhammad Ali/1839 visit: Montefiore 177–87; Green ch. 6. Thomsons in Jerusalem, baby and book: Oren, Power 121–5. Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens’, in Nicault, Jérusalem 177–204.

  10 On Shaftesbury, Palmerston, James Finn and return of Jews, Christian Zionism: David Brown, Palmerston: A Biography on Mehmet Ali crisis 211–37; on religion and Shaftesbury 416–21; Norman Bentwich and John M. Shaftesley, ‘Forerunners of Zionism in the Christian Era’, in Remember the Days: Essays on Anglo-Jewish History Presented to Cecil Roth 207–40. Green 88–9. Tuchman 175–207. Shaftesbury/British interest: Wasserstein 26–9; on the consuls and Anglo-Prussian bishopric 29 and 34–7. Rise of British power: Gilbert, Rebirth 14–27, 42–5. M. Vereté, ‘Why was a British Consulate Established in Jerusalem?’, English Historical Review 75 (1970) 342–5. M. Vereté, ‘The restoration of the Jews in English Protestant Thought, 1790–1840’, Middle Eastern Studies 8 (1972) 4–50.

  Ruth Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land (henceforth Kark) on US missionaries 26–9 on nature of Jerusalem consulates 55, 110–11; on consuls 128–90; on Livermore and American millenarians, quote by US consul in Beirut 212–27, 307–10. On Lieutenant Lynch: Silberman 51–62. James Finn as evangelist, and wife daughter of evangelist, character, brave, tactless, Diness scandal: James and Elizabeth Finn, View from Jerusalem, 1849–58: The Consular Diary of James and Elizabeth Anne Finn (henceforth Finn diaries) 28–35 and 51; blood libel 107–15. Consular rivalries and pretensions: Finn 2.141, 2:221. Shaftesbury, Finn and Gawler’s Hebraism/evangelism: Green 214–19 and 232–3. Return of patriarchs: Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens’, in Nicault, Jérusalem 177–204.

  11 Cresson and American millenarianism: Warder Cresson, The Key of David, on Anglican conversion of Jews 327–30; leaving Philadelphia for Jerusalem 2; charges of insanity and defence 211–44. Levi Parsons, Memoir of Rev. Levi Parsons 357–79. On American Second Awakening, first pilgrims Fisk and Parsons, John Adams, Robinson, Livermore, Joseph Smith Blackstone Memorial: Oren, Power 80–92, 142–3. Obenzinger, American Palestine, on early Americans and Cresson 4–5 and 188–27. MacCulloch 903–7. Harriet Livermore – thanks to Kirsten Ellis for access to her unpublished chapters. US missionaries,
Silberman 31–6. US Christian Zionism: W. E. Blackstone, Memorial, in Obenzinger, American Palestine 269–70. Herzland Zionism: Gilbert, Rebirth 217–22. Zangwill, Galveston settlement, Africa, Argentina, Angola and Territorialism: M. Obenzinger, JQ 17 February 2003. Jews in Jerusalem, 1895: 28,000; 1905: 35,000; 1914: 45,000; Krämer 102–3 and 138. Kark 19–37. W. Thackeray, Notes on a Journey from Cornhill to Grand Cairo (henceforth Thackeray) 681–99.

  H. Melville, Journals 84–94; on Clarel 65–81. Knauf, OJ 74–5. Challenge to US consular flag: Finn diaries 260–77. Finn’s evangelism: Green 219 and 232–33. Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens’, in Nicault, Jérusalem 177–204.

  12 Nicholas I: W. Bruce Lincoln, Nicholas I, handsome 49, Victoria 223, Russian God 243–6, Our Russia 251, Paul and knight, quote of Marquis de Castelbajac (French ambassador) 291, Jerusalem and the Eastern Question, French monk, legend of Alexander I and Russian love of Jerusalem 330–4. Orlando Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade (henceforth Figes) 1–17; on Nicholas 36–7. H. Martineau, Eastern Life,3: 162–5. Fo 78/446, Finn to Aberdeen and Fo 78/205 Finn to Palmerston. Gogol: V. Voropanov, ‘Gogol v Ierusalime’, Pravoslavny Palomnik (2006) 2, 44–6 and 3. 35–59. 1.99–105. P. A. Kulish, Zapiski iz zhizni N. V. Gogolia sostavlennye iz vospominaniy ego druzey i znakomykh i iz ego sobstvennykh pisem 2.164–89. N. V. Gogol, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy: Pisma, 1848–52 vol. 14. I. P. Zolutusky, Gogol 394–401. Elon, Jerusalem 138–9. Jerusalem Syndrome: Yair Bar-El et al., British Journal of Psychiatry 176 (2000) 86–90.

  13 Start of Crimean War: W. B. Lincoln, Nicholas I 330–40. Figes 100–8; Nicholas instability 155–7; Nicholas’ ‘solely Christian purpose’ 157. Writers: Finkel 457–60. Elon, Jerusalem 70–1. Gilbert, Rebirth 67–9, 83–6. Finn 2: 192–32. Fo 195/445 Finn to Clarendon 28 April 1854. Ben-Arieh, 66–8. Derek Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine 1–49. Lynch diaries quoted in Gilbert, Rebirth 51. Karl Marx, New York Daily Tribune 15 April 1854. Colin Shindler, A History of Modern Israel 23. Americans, Lynch: Oren, Power 137–40. James Finn, wars against Arab/Bedouin warlords of Hebron, Abu Ghosh, fighting and Pasha military expeditions: Finn 230–50. Murders, Holy Fire: Finn diaries 104 and 133–57. On nature of Jerusalem: Finn xxvii, 4, 40–2; on governor’s prison etc. 159–74; Holy Fire fighting 2.458–9; Sudanese guards on Haram 2.237.

  Split in Jews between Hassidim and Perushim: Green 116–17; 1839 trip 119–32; Nicholas I and Montefiore 181; 1859–60 purchase of land for Montefiore Cottages 235–57; windmill 324–38; witty reply 1859 to Cardinal Antonelli ‘Not as much as I gave your lackey’ 277. On Montefiore legend in Russia, Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error (henceforth Weizmann) 16. David F. Dorr, A Colored Man Round the World by a Quadroon 183–4 and 186–7. G. Flaubert, Notes de voyage in vol. 19 of Les Oeuvres complètes 19. Frederick Brown, Flaubert: A Life 231–9, 247, 256–61; also Elon, Jerusalem 37 and 139–41. Antony Sattin, Winter on the Nile 17–18. Flaubert on Du Camp official mission: Ruth Victor-Hummel, ‘Culture and Image: Christians and the Beginnings of Local Photography in 19th Century Ottoman Palestine’, in Anthony O’Mahony (ed.), Christian Heritage in the Holy Land 181–91.

  Americans: Oren Power 236–47. Melville: Melville, Journals 84–94; on Clarel 65–81. Obenzinger, American Palestine 65–82, including Jew mania; Grant/Lincoln 161; on Blyden and Dorr 227–47. Knauf, OJ 74–5. Alexander Kinglake, Eothen 144–58, 161–2. Lynch, Jewish picnic outside walls: Gilbert, Rebirth 51. On Gogol see note 12 above.

  14 End of Crimean War, 1850s: Finkel 457–60. Elon, Jerusalem 70–1. Gilbert, Rebirth 67–9, 83–6. Finn 1.2–4, 78, 2.452. Ben-Arieh, 66–8. Hopwood, Russian Presence 1–49. Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens’, in Nicault, Jérusalem 177–204. Gilbert, Rebirth 51. Figes 415–16; Montefiore Balaclava Railway 418; brawl 464–5.

  15 Montefiore: all quotations unless otherwise stated are from the Diaries. Green 176–94, 227, 35–53, 59; fifth visit 1857 63–9; Montefiore windmill and almshouses 1860 109–16; death of Judith 140; sixth visit 1866 171–86; Jerusalem views 338; awning for Wailing Wall and removal of slaughterhouse 332–3; pre-Zionist views, Jewish empire 320; negotiations with Ottomans 324. Rothschilds: Montefiore missions funded; Disraeli comment; reluctance to involve in Jordan; Ferguson, 418–422, and 1131. Melville on Montefiore, ‘this Croesus – a huge man of 75’: Melville, Journals 91–4. Hurva Synagogue: Gilbert, Rebirth 98–100. Ben-Arieh, 42–4. Visits and tensions: Finn diaries 197, 244; Montefiore and Col Gawlon Jewish settlements: Green 50–9.

  Flaubert, Notes de voyage 19. Brown, Flaubert 231–9, 247, 256–61; also Elon, Jerusalem 37 and 139–41. Flaubert on Du Camp official mission: W. B. Lincoln, Nicholas I, war and death 340–50. Victor-Hummel, ‘Culture and Image’ 181–91.

  16 Archaeologists and emperors, spiritual imperialism: Wasserstein 50–65. Robinson: Silberman 37–47, 63–72; Wilson 79–85; Warren 88–99; British Palestine Archaeology 79, 86, 113–27; Bliss on Mount Zion 147–60; German archaeology 165–70. French: Ben-Arieh, 169; frenzy to identify biblical sites 183–5. Saulcy: Goldhill, City of Longing 216. Gilbert, Rebirth, on Robinson and Smith xxii, 4–7 and 65–7; on Warren 128–35; Jewish principality a separate kingdom guaranteed by the Great Powers 128–32. American missionaries and archaeologists, Robinson: Oren, Power 135–7; U. S. Grant and American visitors 236–8. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 216–19. Kark on Robinson 29–30. Obenzinger, American Palestine, on Titus Tobler 253. Ben-Arieh, 183–5. Ruth Hummel, ‘Imperial Pilgrim: Franz Josef’s Journey to the Holy Land in 1869’, in M. Wrba (ed.), Austrian Presence in the Holy Land 158–77. Russians: Simon Dixon, ‘A Stunted International: Russian Orthodoxy in the Holy Land in the 19th Century’, draft paper. Romanov pilgrimages: N. N. Lisovoy and P. V. Stegniy, Rossiya v Svyatoy Zemle: Dokumenty i materialy 1.125–7; Grand Duke Constantine 1859 visit 128–35. Hopwood, Russian Presence, Grand Duke Constantine 51. Russian pilgrims: Bertha Spafford Vester, Our Jerusalem (henceforth Vester) 86–7. Spiritual imperialism: Wasserstein 50–65.

  British, American and German archaeology, Silberman 113–27; 147–53–70; Moabite Stone 100–12; Moses Shapira 131–40. Americans: Obenzinger, American Palestine, 161. Consuls and Selah Merrill: Kark 128–30 and 323–5. British royals: Gilbert, Rebirth 109–14 and 177–80. Rider Haggard, A Winter Pilgrimage 267. Edward Lear in Elon, Jerusalem 142; 1881 Crown Prince Rudolf 144–5. Kitchener/ Gordon: Gilbert, Rebirth 187. Pollock, Kitchener: Saviour of the Realm 29–37 and 31. Kitchener photographs Muristan, in Boas, Jerusalem 160. Gordon in Goldhill, City of Longing 21; Elon, Jerusalem 147; Grabar, 16.

  17 1860–9: Hummel, ‘Imperial Pilgrims’ 158–77. Russians: Dixon, ‘A Stunted international.’ Lisovoy and Stegniy, Rossiya v Svyatoy Zemle 1.125–45. Hopwood, Russian Presence 51. Vester 86–7. Wasserstein 50–65.

  18 Edward W. Blyden, From West Africa to Palestine 9–12 on Jerusalem mind; arrival 165; Holy Sepulchre 166; Bible in hand 170; black Muslims 180; Wall 280–3; second coming 199. Obenzinger, American Palestine 161–2; Blyden and Dorr 227–47. Mark Twain, Mediterranean Hotel and Ariel Sharon: see Haaretz 15 July 2008. Quotations from Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrims’ Progress. Green: Judith Montefiore 140; visit 1866, 171–86; views 338; awning for Wailing Wall and removal of slaughterhouse; 332–3. U. S. Grant, Twain, Lincoln: Oren, Power 189, 236–8, 239–47. On archaeology, picturesque visions, new travel: Mazower Salonica 205–21.

  19 Yusuf Khalidi and Ottoman Jerusalem: Alexander Scholch, ‘An Ottoman Bismarck from Jerusalem: Yusuf Diya al-Khalidi’, JQ 24, Summer 2005. K. Kasmieh, ‘The Leading Intellectuals of late Ottoman Jerusalem’, in OJ 37–42. Execution: Warren quoted in Goldhill, City of Longing, 146. Conrad, ‘Khalidi Library,’ OJ 191–209. Arab mansions, Ben-Arieh, 74–6. Martin Drow, ‘The Hammams of Ottoman Jerusalem’, OJ 518–24. Arab mansions: Sharif M. Sharif, ‘Ceiling Decoration in Jerusalem during the Late Ottoman Period: 1856–1917’, in OJ 473–8. Houses, slaves, women: Susan Roaf, ‘Life in 19th-Century Jerusalem’, in OJ 389–414. Clothes: Nancy Micklewright, ‘Costume in Ottoman Jer
usalem’, in OJ 294–300. Ott, ‘Songs and Musical Instruments of Ottoman Jerusalem’, in OJ 301–20. Wasif Jawhariyyeh, Al Quds Al Othmaniyah Fi Al Muthakrat Al Jawhariyyeh on Jewish Purim shared with other sects 1.68; Jewish Picnic at Simon the Just tomb and singing of Christian, Muslim and Spanish Jewish songs 1.74; musicians, belly dancers, Jews and Muslims 1.148. Salim Tamari, ‘Jerusalem’s Ottoman Modernity: The Times and Lives of Wasif Jawhariyyeh’, and ‘Ottoman Jerusalem in the Jawhariyyeh Memoirs’, JQ 9, Summer 2000. Vera Tamari, ‘Two Ottoman Ceremonial Banners in Jerusalem’, in OJ 317. Joseph B. Glass and Ruth Kark, ‘Sarah la Preta: A Slave in Jerusalem’, JQ 34, Spring 2009. Sephardic Jews shared festivals, circumcision, matzah, welcome after haj, Sephardis pray for rain at request of Muslim leaders, Valero relations with Nashashibis and Nusseibehs: Ruth Kark and Joseph B. Glass, ‘The Valero Family: Sephardi–Arab Relations in Ottoman and Mandatory Jerusalem’, in OJ 21, August 2004. Greek Orthodox anti-Semitism/ Easter songs – reported by British visitors 1896: Janet Soskice, Sisters of the Sinai 237. On Arabs calling Jews ‘Jews sons of Arabs’ see Wasif Jawhariyyeh, diary, note 4, Zionism section. Weddings. Pappe 53 and 97–8.

  Nusseibehs’ castle house: Sari Nusseibeh, Country 48–9. Khalidis, Khalidi Library: Nazmi al-Jubeh, ‘The Khalidiyah Library’, JQ 3, Winter 1999. Conrad, ‘Khalidi Library’, OJ 191–205. Author interview with Haifa Khalidi. Ajami, ‘Hidden Treasure’, Saudi Aramco World Magazine. Kasmieh, ‘Leading Intellectuals of Late OttomanJerusalem’, OJ 37–42. Husseinis: Illan Pappe, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Husaynis’, Part 1, JQ 10, Autumn2000; ‘The Husayni Family Faces New Challenges: Tanzimat, Young Turks, the Europeans and Zionism, 1840–1922’, Part 2, JQ 11–12, Winter 2001. New wealth of the Families: Pappe 87–91.