Every house originally contained only one single room (often with the addition of a loft-room in the case of the storehouses described below). Thus the usual word for room (stue) was also often used as meaning “house.” By the time when this book opens, however, the original single large, log-built room had been supplemented by penthouses (svale) made of “staves” (see Note 23), built around it on one, two, three, or all four sides, to shield the timbers of the main room from the weather and to keep out draughts. The penthouse was entered by a porch supported on wooden pillars and arches, and, along one side of the house, was usually divided by partitions into small rooms. One of these was the “outer room” (forstue), from which opened the main door of the living-room; others were closets (kove or kleve), used for the storage of chests, etc., or to hold a bed.
Cooking was done in a separate kitchen-house (ildstue), and there were also usually a brew house (bryghus), a weaving-house (vaevstue) for the looms of the mistress and maids, as well as workshops — for all farming implements were made and repaired on the place. The smithy and the bathhouse (for steam baths) were placed some distance off in the fields, on account of the danger of fire.
Across the courtyard from the main dwelling-houses was a row of storehouses (bur; in modern times usually built on pillars, for security from rats and mice, and hence called “stabbur”) — log-houses, often two-storeyed. The ground-floor of a “bur” was for the storage of all kinds of produce — hides, butter, cheese and candles, loaves of bread, dried fish, salted meat, etc. A wealthy man, owning several farms besides his home farm, received his rents in kind, and the produce so received, as well as that of the home farm, was stored in these “bure.” Hides, wool, fish, and other strong-smelling wares would be kept in one “bur,” milk products, flour, and bread, etc., in another.
The most characteristic buildings of the older type were the hearth-room house (aarestue) and the storehouses (bure).
This page shows a typical “aarestue,” the old form of living-room. The two beds (built against the wall) were occupied, one by the master and mistress, often with one or more young children, the other by the elder children, or other members of the family. For those of the family for whom there was no room in the beds, sleeping-places were made up on the wall-benches. On the smaller farms the servants also lay on these benches; but on large places like Jörundgaard there were separate houses for the men-servants and the maids, and a house for the bailiff and his wife (raadmandsstue), Jon and Tordis of this story.
The hearth (aare) in the middle of the hearth-room was the sacred centre of home and family life. The smoke escaped by a smoke-vent (ljore) in the ridge of the roof. A wooden frame, with a pane of bladder or horn in it, could be drawn across this vent, by means of a pole (ljorestang), which hung down into the room. As the smoke-vent had to lead into the open air, the hearth-house was necessarily originally a one-storeyed building. The hearth-room, being the warmest room, and therefore the one most used in winter, was sometimes called the winter-room.
The newer type of dwelling-house, such as the “hall” (höienloftshus) on Jörundgaard (see this page), was built in two storeys, the difficulty as to heating being overcome, after a fashion, by the introduction of wall fireplaces in masonry (murede ovne) in both the ground-floor room and the loft-room. Such a fireplace was an erection of stone in clay, built into a corner of the room, opening to the room in an arch, with a flat or domed mantel. Usually, in country houses, such fireplaces had no sort of chimney, so that they of course smoked horribly, and came to be known as “smoke fireplaces” (rökovne). The ground-floor rooms of these new-fashioned buildings often had windows with glass panes, whereas the hearth-room was lighted exclusively from the smoke-vent and the door.
The upper storey of the “bur,” known as “bursloft,” protruded on the gable front, and the front portion formed a balcony (this, too, was called “svale”), with an open arcade looking down into the courtyard. The “bursloft” was usually reached by an outside staircase leading up into the balcony. The entire “bur” was (and is) the favourite architectural structure of the Norwegian farm, beautifully proportioned, of excellent workmanship, and adorned with fine carvings and wrought-iron locks. The “bursloft” was used for storing the best clothes and the jewellery of the family, spare bedding, weapons, and the arms of the master; but there were also beds in it, so that it could be used as a guest-chamber, or as a summer bedroom for the family, or for the daughters and maid-servants. As the whole “bur” was quite unheated, it was of course hardly possible to use the “bursloft” as a bedroom in the winter.
Plan of typicle Hearthroom-house
The space under the overhanging balcony (bursvale) is the favourite trysting-place of the lover and his mistress in Norwegian — and Danish — ballads; and their conversation is often overheard by an eavesdropper in the dark balcony above.
The hall (höienloftshus) was built much on the same lines as the “bur” as to the overhanging upper storey, the balcony, and outside staircase; but was much larger, turned its side, instead of its gable, to the courtyard, and had its balcony (svale or höienloftsbro) on the courtyard side. The large loft-room (the “upper hall” of this translation) was the state-room of the manor. The hall (stue) underneath was the new winter living-room of the master and his family, with its wall fireplace and window with glass panes.
3. Lagmand
The position and functions of the Swedish “Lagmand,” with reference to the Assembly (Thing) of his province, seem to have been closely analogous to those of the Speaker of the early House of Commons in England. He was chosen by the people, presided over the meetings of the Thing, and when the King was present, it was the Lagmand’s duty to communicate to him the resolutions of the Thing, and generally to represent the rights of the common people.
4. King Haakon the Old
King Haakon the Old is Haakon IV. (Haakonssön), the grandson of King Sverre and the hero of Ibsen’s The Pretenders. The Kings of Norway during the period covered by this book, and that immediately preceding it, were:
Haakon IV. 1217–1263
Magnus VI. (Lagaböter) 1263–1280
Eirik 1280–1299
Haakon V. 1299–1319
Magnus VII. (Smek) 1319–1343
Magnus VII. was the grandson of Haakon V., being the son of Haakon’s daughter Ingeborg (the Lady Ingebjörg of this book) by Duke Eirik of Sweden. He succeeded as a minor (see Part III., Chap. II.) to the thrones of Norway and Sweden. The complications arising from the vesting of the two crowns in one person form one of the springs of action in the second part of Kristin Lavransdatter, entitled The Housewife (Husfruen).
5. Domestic Arrangements of Priests
For an explanation of Sira Eirik’s domestic arrangements, see this page. “Sira” was the title (directly borrowed from the English) of parish priests.
6. Peasant Guilds
See Note 17.
7. Elf-maiden or Dwarf-Maiden
For the many superstitions connected with the “mountain people” reference may be made to any of the collections of Norwegian Folk and Fairy Tales, of which the best known is the classical work of Asbjörnsen and Moe.
References to these superstitions occur on this page (where the Hamar Cathedral is likened, in Kristin’s imagination, to the mountain folk’s hall); this page (where Lady Aashild refers to the tales in which astute mortals get the better of the trolls or dwarfs); and this page (where the phrase translated “she goes around like one bewitched” is in the original “she goes about as if she were come out of the mountain”).
8. St. Sunniva and the Selje-men
St. Sunniva was an Irish Princess who, to escape the unwelcome attentions of a heathen chief, fled across the sea, with a number of devoted followers, in a vessel without rudder, sail, or oars, and reached the Norwegian coast, where the party landed on the island of Selje. The refugees dwelt in caves of the hills, living on fish. The heathen inhabitants of the neighbouring mainland, missing from time to
time some of their cattle left to graze on the islands off the coast, suspected that the strangers were responsible, and sent an armed party against them. On arrival, the party found that the caves occupied by the refugees had been blocked up and their occupants entombed by a great landslide.
Some time afterwards passers-by in boats noticed a strange light streaming from the spot where the strangers had been entombed. The matter reached the ears of the King, Olaf Tryggvesön (then engaged in his attempt to Christianize the land), and he proceeded to investigate, accompanied by a bishop. The caves were opened up, and, while the remains of Sunniva’s companions showed their sanctity only by the emission of the supernatural light and of a sweet smell, the body of the Princess herself was found intact and uncorrupted. The King had a church built upon the spot and the body enshrined there. A hundred years later the body was removed to the Bergen Cathedral.
The Mass of the Selje-men was celebrated annually on the 8th July, in honour of Sunniva and her companions.
9. Sewing-chair (Sömmestol)
An arm-chair with a chest in the seat to hold the needle-work, sewing implements, etc.
10. Birch-legs (Birkebeiner)
The followers of King Sverre, so called because, in the many wanderings and privations in hills and wastes which eventually led that great adventurer to the throne, they covered their nakedness with garments of birch-bark. See Ibsen’s The Pretenders.
11. Hovedö
The largest of the islands in the Christiania Fjord close to the town. Noted for the Cistercian monastery established there in the twelfth century by monks from Kirkstead in Lincolnshire. See this page.
12. Baron
Lendermand in original. The lendermand was a high feudal dignitary holding a fief under the Crown in return for certain services to be rendered to the King in war and peace, which do not seem to have been prescribed generally, but were fixed separately in each particular case. Neither title nor fief was hereditary.
The title was changed to “Baron” by King Magnus Lagaböter, but continued to be personal, and not hereditary.
Haakon V., in pursuance of his policy of curbing the growth of the Norwegian aristocracy and preventing the formation of a feudal nobility on the European model, decreed (1308) that no more “barons” were to be made. The office and title thus became extinct.
13. Commoners (Proventsfolk)
The “proventsfolk” were what in modern times would be called boarders-laymen and women, chiefly elderly people, who were boarded and lodged by the convent on payment. Both monasteries and nunneries had such boarders, and as, in both cases, the boarders were of both sexes (in spite of the orders of the bishops to the contrary), they were lodged in houses outside the convent gates.
14. Saint Days and Festivals
As times and seasons are constantly marked in the text by Church festivals the dates of some of the less familiar of these may usefully be noted:
St. Gregory 13th February.
St. Halvard 15th May.
St. John 21st June.
St. Lawrence (Lavrans) 10th August.
St. Bartholomew 24th August.
Birthday of the Virgin 8th September.
Holy Cross Day (Elevation) 14th September.
Michaelmas 29th September.
St. Clement 23rd November.
15. Town “Dwelling-places” and “Yards”
The word “gaard,” which, when it refers to country-places, has been translated “manor” or “farm,” was also used for the residences of families in towns and for the squares or yards occupied by merchants and shopkeepers. In the former case the word “dwelling-place” has been used, and in the latter the word “yard” (on the analogy of such places as Bell Yard or Tokenhouse Yard in London). In both cases the town “gaard” bore a general resemblance to the courtyard (ind-tun) part of a country “gaard,” as described in Note 2; i.e. it consisted of a number of houses enclosing a square or oblong open space, the houses being connected by fences, and the entrance being through a gate.
Ordinarily several country families would share a town “gaard,” each owning one or more of the houses.
Under regulations of King Haakon V. and his predecessors, each important trade was assigned its own “gaard,” to which it was confined. Thus Mickle Yard (Miklegaard) was the quarter of the shoemakers and leather-merchants.
16. Money
What Lavrans gave Kristin as pocket-money was “a mark of silver in counted money.” The following is a very brief and rough sketch of the somewhat confusing monetary arrangements of the period:
“A mark of pure silver” (en mark brændt sölv) was a weight of 215.8 grammes of silver, or rather less than ½ lb. avoirdupois (227 grammes). The divisions of this weight were:
1 mark = 8 öre = 24 örtug = 240 penninger.
But the value of “a mark of silver in counted money” (en mark sölv i tællede penger) was only from ⅓ to ⅕ of that of a mark of pure silver.
Thus Kristin’s pocket-money was equal in value to (say) ⅓ of ½, or ⅙ lb. = 2⅓ ounces of pure silver — the purchasing power of which was, of course, very greatly in excess of what it would be at the present day.
All sorts of foreign coins (including shillings and florins) were in circulation, being valued according to their weight and fineness.
On this page–this page Kristin bargains with the Rostock men to pay them an “örtug,” which, as shown above, was equal to 10 “penninger.” We have rendered “örtug” by “silver ducat,” a coin said to have had a value of about 3s. 4d., and “penning” by “silver penny,” which we assume to have been worth about 4d.
On this page Erlend promises “four marks of silver” (fire mark sölv) towards the rebuilding of the church. This was no doubt “pure silver,” so that the contribution was equal in value to nearly 2 lb. avoirdupois of pure silver — a handsome offering, considering the high value of silver at the period.
17. Peasant or Farmers’ Guilds
These included both freeholders and tenants, both men and women, and were associations for all kinds of mutual helpfulness and protection, ranging from insurance against fire (in times of peace — in war-time the functions of the guild were partially suspended) to the avenging of the deaths of members, and providing for the welfare of their souls by prayers and masses.
The guilds originated in heathen times, but were eagerly adopted and adapted by the Catholic Church. The various guilds were assigned patron Saints, and each held a great drinking festival on its Saint’s day and the succeeding days. For these festivals somewhat elaborate regulations were laid down in the laws of the guilds, with a view to ensuring that they should be decorous and dignified functions. Thus quarrelling, foul language, and indecorous behaviour towards women were prohibited; no man was to become so drunk that he could not behave himself; no man was to bring his dogs or hawks into the hall; no child under three years old was to be admitted except in its mother’s or foster-mother’s charge; guild members were responsible for the behaviour of any outside guests they might introduce, etc.
The toasts usually included cups to the memory of the Saviour, the Virgin Mary, the Saints, and departed guild brothers and sisters.
18. Mission to Vargöybus
Vargöyhus is now the little town of Vardö in the north-east of Finmark. The mission of Gissur Galle in 1310–1311 had for its object the regulation of the taxation taken from the Laplanders, and the erection or strengthening of a little fort on Vargöy (Wolf Island), which in the following centuries was the outpost of Norwegian power against Russian raids into Finmark.
19. Barons and Wardens
For Barons, see Note 12.
The word translated Wardens is in the original sysselmænd. The sysselmand was a high official in charge of a district, his duties being those of a chief administrator, military commander, and police officer. The appointment was made by the Crown from among gentlemen of distinction — at the period of this story a sysselmand would be usually, though not always, a knig
ht. He had to maintain a certain number of armed men and subordinate officials. His remuneration varied in different cases — he might be paid directly by the Crown, or remunerated by a share in fines and fiefs.
20. The Sacred Blood at Schwerin
Some drops of blood from a bleeding Host preserved in a monastery at Schwerin were much venerated throughout the North, and were visited by many Scandinavian pilgrims.
21. Marriage Settlements
According to old Norwegian law and custom the normal marriage settlement was as follows:
The bride brought with her into the partnership her dowry (hjemmefölge); and the bridegroom was legally bound to transfer to her in addition an “extra-gift” (tilgave) which was fixed at one-third or one-half of the value of the dowry. The dowry and “extra-gift” together were generally calculated to be about one-third of the total joint estate.
This (dowry plus “extra-gift”) was the wife’s portion of the couple’s joint possessions. If the marriage were childless, and the husband survived his wife, her family inherited it; if he died first, her family, in her name, had to see that the husband’s heirs paid it over to the widow.
In the case of the wife’s adultery, the husband kept the “extra-gift” in stewardship till her death; after which he was bound to pay it to her heirs.
In case of the man’s adultery (but only with another man’s wedded wife) his wife, if she chose to leave him, might claim that her portion be transferred to the stewardship of her kinsmen.
Husband and wife could not inherit from each other.
The “morning-gift” (morgen-gave) was a voluntary gift from the husband to his wife on the morning after marriage. It might often be much more valuable than the “extra-gift,” the amount of which was fixed by law. But the bride’s parents often let the bridegroom fix the intended “morning-gift” when the marriage-contract was made.