This plea for tolerance highlights the complexities of the play in terms of the representation of the Jewish faith and of Shylock, intrinsically and separately, and the degree of the audience's sympathies for various characters, complicated here by Salerio and Solanio's evident prejudice and Shylock's evident desire for "revenge." They are interrupted by Antonio's servant, who asks Salerio and Solanio to go to his master. As they leave, Tubal arrives. Shylock asks for news of Jessica, but Tubal has not found her, although he reports that she is spending Shylock's money. He also reports that Antonio has lost another ship, and Shylock wavers between pleasure at Antonio's misfortune, and rage at his own losses.
ACT 3 SCENE 2
Lines 1-222: Portia asks Bassanio to wait "a day or two" before undertaking the task, as she does not want to lose him but he wants to choose immediately. He confesses his love and Portia agrees, calling for music to play while Bassanio is making his decision. As a song is sung, Bassanio considers the three caskets. Unlike the other suitors, he recognizes that "the outward shows be least themselves." Rejecting gold as "food for Midas" and silver as the money that passes "'Tween man and man," Bassanio selects the lead casket. Portia's aside reveals her happiness as he opens it to reveal her portrait. Portia makes Bassanio "her lord, her governor, her king" and master of her estate and fortune. To seal this, she gives him a ring, which he must never "part from, lose or give away" as this would signal the "ruin" of his love for her. He promises to wear it until he dies, another "bond" which must be upheld. Nerissa and Gratiano congratulate the couple and Gratiano reveals that he is in love with Nerissa, before asking permission to marry her. Bassanio and Portia agree. As they joke happily together, Lorenzo arrives, accompanied by Salerio and Jessica.
Lines 223-333: Bassanio and Portia welcome their visitors, and Salerio gives Bassanio a letter from Antonio. Gratiano says that Antonio will be pleased by the news of the betrothals, but Portia is watching Bassanio and comments that the letter "steals the color from Bassanio's cheek." Bassanio reveals the truth about the loan, and Antonio's bond, before questioning Salerio about the loss of Antonio's fortunes. Salerio tells him that even if Antonio could now find the money, Shylock is determined to have "forfeiture ... justice and his bond." Jessica confirms that her father has often sworn that he would "rather have Antonio's flesh / Than twenty times the value of the sum." Bassanio describes Antonio to Portia as "the dearest friend" and "the kindest man." She says that Bassanio must pay as much as it takes to release Antonio, and offers him gold to "pay the petty debt twenty times over." She decides that they shall be married quickly, then Bassanio shall go back to Venice with Gratiano, while she and Nerissa "live as maids and widows" until their return. Bassanio reads Antonio's letter, which urges him to come and see him, as it is unlikely that he will live after paying the forfeit. Portia urges him to "be gone!" and Bassanio promises to return as soon as he can.
ACT 3 SCENE 3
Antonio is in jail. Shylock will not listen to requests for "mercy," and his bitterness seems to have driven him to the edges of sanity as he constantly repeats that he will "have [his] bond." He leaves, and Antonio resolves that he will stop begging, recognizing that Shylock wants him to die for the times he has helped people who owed him "forfeitures," although he does not acknowledge that the persecution of Shylock for his faith may have contributed to his desire for revenge. He knows that the duke cannot prevent Shylock from exacting the bond, because to do so would be to "impeach the justice of the state." Antonio sends Solanio away, hoping that Bassanio will come to see him "pay his debt."
ACT 3 SCENE 4
Lorenzo tells Portia that if she knew Antonio, she would be even "prouder" of her role in trying to save him. She replies that she sees saving Antonio as the same as saving Bassanio, and announces her intention to withdraw to a monastery with Nerissa, to live "in prayer and contemplation" while Bassanio is away. She asks Lorenzo and Jessica to take the place of Bassanio and herself until this time. Portia then hands Balthasar a letter to take to her cousin, Doctor Bellario in Padua, and instructs him to bring back "what notes and garments" the doctor gives him. Finally, alone with Nerissa, Portia reveals her plan for them to go to Venice, disguised as men.
ACT 3 SCENE 5
Lancelet tells Jessica that he fears for her soul because "the sins of the father are to be laid upon the children," but she argues that she has been "saved" by marriage to Lorenzo, who has made her a Christian. As they argue, Lorenzo arrives and Jessica repeats what Lancelet has said. Lorenzo, however, reports that Lancelet has got a Moorish servant pregnant. Lancelet merely responds with jokes until Lorenzo, annoyed, sends him to serve dinner. Lorenzo asks Jessica how she likes Portia, and she replies that the "world / Hath not her fellow." They go to dinner.
ACT 4 SCENE 1
Lines 1-166: In the courtroom, the duke sympathizes with Antonio, describing Shylock as "an inhuman wretch / Uncapable of pity." Antonio is resigned, declaring that he will "oppose" Shylock's "fury" with "patience," and his "rage" with "a quietness of spirit," emphasizing the deliberate contrasting of the two characters. Shylock is shown in and the duke tells him that he is sure he will "show mercy" to Antonio. Shylock is unmoved, maintaining that he will have the "weight of carrion flesh" he is entitled to. He refuses to take the three thousand ducats instead, citing his "hate" and "certain loathing" of Antonio. Bassanio tries to reason with him and offers him more money, but Antonio tells him that it is pointless. The duke asks Shylock how he expects to receive mercy when he shows none. Shylock argues that he has no need of mercy when he is "doing no wrong": he is asking for justice, which must be given to him according to "the decrees of Venice." The duke has sent for "Bellario, a learned doctor" to determine the outcome, and Salerio reports that a messenger has arrived from Padua. Nerissa enters, disguised as a law clerk. As she hands the duke a letter, Shylock begins to sharpen his knife. The letter is from Bellario, who is unable to come but who has sent "A young and learned doctor," Balthasar, in his place. Portia enters, disguised as Balthasar.
Lines 167-270: Portia, as Balthasar, questions both Shylock and Antonio, concluding that "the Jew" must "be merciful." Shylock asks what "compulsion" there is to do so, and Portia responds that mercy cannot be forced: "It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath." Bassanio repeats that he now has the money to pay the bond "ten times o'er," and asks that the law be changed. Portia says that there is "no power in Venice" that can alter the law. Shylock is delighted. Portia asks to look at the bond and concludes that Shylock may "lawfully" "claim A pound of flesh." Again, she urges Shylock to "be merciful" and again he refuses. He also declines to provide a surgeon to tend to Antonio afterward because "'tis not in the bond," showing his determination to stick to the letter of the law.
Lines 271-356: Portia calls Antonio forward and he announces that he is "prepared." He takes Bassanio's hand and tells him to commend him to his "honourable wife" and tell her how much Antonio loved him. Bassanio declares that, although Portia is as "dear" to him "as life itself," he would "sacrifice" her to save Antonio. Gratiano makes a similar declaration, and Portia and Nerissa are both unimpressed by their husbands' claims. Portia announces that Shylock may cut the flesh from Antonio, but, as he goes to do so, she tells him to "Tarry." Using Shylock's own adherence to the wording of the bond against him, she reminds him that the "words" "expressly are 'a pound of flesh'"; he may take no "blood," and he must take exactly a pound. Anything else is against the law, and would result in Shylock having to surrender his "lands and goods" to the state. Shylock announces that he will take money instead, but Portia insists that he may only take his bond. Shylock accepts defeat and prepares to leave the court, but Portia calls him back.
Lines 357-413: Portia reminds Shylock of the penalty against "an alien" who "seek[s] the life of any citizen": he must forfeit all of his "goods," to be divided between the state and Antonio, and, unless the duke shows "mercy," he will be executed. In contrast to Shylock's own refusals to show merc
y, the duke pardons his life and reduces his fine. Antonio is similarly merciful, returning his share of Shylock's fortune on the condition that he converts to Christianity and leaves his money to Jessica and Lorenzo. Shylock agrees, and leaves the court.
Lines 414-470: The duke invites "Balthasar" to dinner, but Portia says she must return to Padua. The duke tells Antonio that he should reward the "young man." Bassanio still does not recognize his own wife, ironically forgetting his own words on "outward shows" in Act 3 Scene 2, and offers the three thousand ducats. Portia declines the money, but Bassanio insists on giving some form of payment. Portia asks him for his gloves and the ring he wears. Bassanio gives the gloves, but refuses to hand over the ring, explaining the "vow" he made to his wife. Portia accepts this explanation, although she is sure his "wife" would know that Balthasar deserved the ring. After she and Nerissa have left, Antonio urges Bassanio to give the ring to Balthasar, and Bassanio agrees. He removes the ring, and sends Gratiano to deliver it.
ACT 4 SCENE 2
Still disguised, Portia and Nerissa arrange the deed bequeathing Shylock's wealth to Jessica and Lorenzo. Gratiano enters and gives Portia the ring. She asks Gratiano to show Nerissa where Shylock's house is, and Gratiano, not recognizing his own wife, agrees. Nerissa tells Portia in an aside that she, too, will try to get the ring that she gave to Gratiano. They look forward to hearing their husbands' explanations.
ACT 5 SCENE 1
Lines 1-137: In Belmont, Lorenzo and Jessica are declaring their love for each other, indicating the lighter, more comic tone of the final scene in comparison to the dark, complex emotions of the courtroom. They are interrupted by a messenger, who tells them that Portia and Nerissa will arrive soon. Lancelet brings the news that Bassanio and Gratiano will also be back before morning. Lorenzo calls for music to welcome Portia home, and as he and Jessica admire the stars, he muses that a man who cannot appreciate music is not to be trusted. Portia and Nerissa return, drawn by the light and the sounds of the music. Lorenzo greets them and tells them that Bassanio and Gratiano will soon be back. Portia asks that no one reveal that she and Nerissa have been away.
Lines 138-325: Bassanio and Gratiano return, accompanied by Antonio, and Portia welcomes them. As Portia speaks to Antonio, they are interrupted by Nerissa and Gratiano, quarreling. He is trying to explain that he gave her ring to "the judge's clerk," adding that it was only a "paltry" item. Nerissa argues that the value of the ring was not as important as his oath to always wear it, reminding us of the theme of "worth" and the various bonds entered into during the play. Portia claims that Bassanio would never have given away her ring, but Gratiano reveals that he did. Bassanio tries to explain, but both women accuse their husbands of giving the rings to other women, and claim their right to be unfaithful in their turn.
Antonio intervenes, blaming himself for the misunderstanding. He offers to be "bound again," and will forfeit his "soul" if Bassanio ever breaks faith with Portia. Portia gives Bassanio a ring, telling him to "keep it better than the other." He recognizes it, and Portia pretends that Balthasar gave it to her for sleeping with him. Nerissa produces her ring, and claims that the clerk gave it to her for the same reason. Before the men can respond, however, Portia reveals the truth: she was Balthasar and Nerissa the clerk. She produces a letter from Bellario to prove this, and another letter for Antonio, revealing that three of his ships "are richly come to harbour." Lorenzo and Jessica are informed of Shylock's new will. The play ends happily for the three sets of lovers, but Antonio remains a solitary figure despite his restored fortune, and the treatment of Shylock throughout creates an ambiguous sense of resolution.
THE MERCHANT OF VENICE
IN PERFORMANCE:
THE RSC AND BEYOND
The best way to understand a Shakespeare play is to see it or ideally to participate in it. By examining a range of productions, we may gain a sense of the extraordinary variety of approaches and interpretations that are possible--a variety that gives Shakespeare his unique capacity to be reinvented and made "our contemporary" four centuries after his death.
We begin with a brief overview of the play's theatrical and cinematic life, offering historical perspectives on how it has been performed. We then analyze in more detail a series of productions staged over the last half century by the Royal Shakespeare Company. The sense of dialogue between productions that can only occur when a company is dedicated to the revival and investigation of the Shakespeare canon over a long period, together with the uniquely comprehensive archival resource of promptbooks, program notes, reviews, and interviews held on behalf of the RSC at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust in Stratford-upon-Avon, allows an "RSC stage history" to become a crucible in which the chemistry of the play can be explored.
Finally, we go to the horse's mouth. Modern theater is dominated by the figure of the director, who must hold together the whole play, whereas the actor must concentrate on his or her part. The director's viewpoint is therefore especially valuable. Shakespeare's plasticity is wonderfully revealed when we hear directors of highly successful productions answering the same questions in very different ways. For this play, it is also especially interesting to hear the voice of those who have been inside the part of Shylock: we accordingly also include interviews with two actors who created the role to high acclaim.
FOUR CENTURIES OF THE MERCHANT: AN OVERVIEW
The performance history of The Merchant of Venice has been dominated by the figure of Shylock: no small feat for a character who appears in fewer scenes than almost any other named character and whose role is dwarfed in size by that of Portia. Nevertheless, tradition has it that Richard Burbage, leading player of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, originated the role of Shylock. Quite how the character of the Jewish moneylender was received on stage at the time has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The actor-manager William Poel, in his Elizabethan-practices production of 1898 at St. George's Hall in London, played the character in the red wig and beard, traditionally associated with Judas Iscariot, on the assumption that Shakespeare merely made use of an available stock type in order that the vice of greed may "be laughed at and defeated, not primarily because he is a Jew, but because he is a curmudgeon."1
While more recent history makes the idea of the Jew as stock villain uncomfortable for modern audiences, it must be remembered that, at the time of original performance, the Jewish people had been officially excluded from England for three hundred years and would not be readmitted until 1655. The play's original performances can therefore be seen in a context of folk legend and caricature, as had been recently perpetuated by Christopher Marlowe's The Jew of Malta, with its explicitly Machiavellian villain Barabas epitomizing the fashionable type of the cunning Jew. Barabas was one of the great tragedian Edward Alleyn's leading roles, and may have provided the incentive for Burbage, the other leading actor of the day, to take a more complex spin on the stock Jewish figure. As recently as 2006, New York's Theater for a New Audience played the two in repertory together, drawing out the links and influences between the plays.
The play includes a part for William Kempe, the company clown, as Lancelet Gobbo (the name interestingly referencing an earlier Kempe role, Launce of The Two Gentlemen of Verona) and, in Portia, his greatest challenge for a boy actor so far. Portia's role, comprising almost a quarter of the play's entire text, required tremendous skill and range from the young actor, and laid down the groundwork for the great breeches-clad heroines of the mature comedies, Viola and Rosalind.
The play was played twice at court in February 1605, suggesting a popularity that had kept the play in the company repertory for the best part of a decade, but after this there is no record of the play being performed again in the seventeenth century. The play's history in the eighteenth century began, as with many of Shakespeare's works, as an adaptation, George Granville's The Jew of Venice (1701). While the title ostensibly shifts the focus from Antonio to Shylock, the company's leading actor, Thomas Betterton, took the role of
Bassanio. Shylock, on the other hand, was played by Thomas Doggett, an actor best known for low comedy. The adapted play emphasized moral ideals: Shylock was a simple comic villain, Bassanio a heroic and romantic lover.
It was not until 1741 that Shakespeare's text was restored by Charles Macklin at Drury Lane. Macklin, like Doggett before him, was best known for his comic roles, but he deliberately set out to create a more serious interpretation of Shylock. John Doran, for example, notes that in the trial scene "Shylock was natural, calmly confident, and so terribly malignant, that when he whetted his knife ... a shudder went round the house."2 This Shylock posed a genuine threat that the earlier comic villains did not, and thus began the process of reimagining The Merchant of Venice as more than a straightforward comedy. Macklin performed Shylock until 1789 and redefined the role--and the play--for subsequent generations. To Alexander Pope is attributed the pithy tribute "This is the Jew that Shakespeare drew."3