A rigid code of etiquette was observed at court, especially in the King’s presence. Entertainments and festivals were organised with the maximum ceremony, and during the reign there were six great occasions of state: two coronations, one near-legendary summit meeting, two royal visits, and a reception for a future queen.2 Then there were public processions and the solemnities attendant upon royal births, betrothals, marriages, and deaths; receptions of ambassadors; and the solemnities attendant upon the creation of peers. Court ceremonies and functions were usually organised by Garter King of Arms, assisted by the Vice Chamberlain.3
The court was at its most splendid on the feast days that marked the major religious and other festivals: Christmas, New Year, the Feast of the Epiphany (or Twelfth Night), Easter, Ascension Day, the Feast of the Assumption, and the Feast of St. John the Baptist on Midsummer Day. These days were marked by pious observances as well as feasting and merrymaking. At Candlemas, the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary on 2 February, the King walked in a candlelit procession to chapel, his candle borne by a nobleman on his right.4 On festival days, the court ate exceptionally well, and the King would feast in public; his subjects— provided they were respectably dressed—could come to watch.
There were times when food was not so plentiful. The court fasted on fish and dairy foods—“white meats”—on Fridays and Saturdays, and observed an even stricter regimen during Lent, when dairy foods were not allowed.5 The King relaxed this rule in 1541.
Tudor feasts were an extravaganza of excess. The King’s hospitality was boundless, and cost the equivalent of around £4 million a year. Up to seven hundred guests might be invited, and 240 different dishes served on gold or silver-gilt plates. When the King entertained thirty people at Windsor, there were fourteen varieties of meat, eight hundred eggs, ninety dishes of butter, eighty loaves of chestnut bread, three hundred wafers, gingerbread coated in gold leaf, and sufficient fruit and drink for each diner to have ten oranges and twenty alcoholic beverages.6 All guests were seated in order of rank, and served with impressive ceremony. The cupbearers and food tasters attending royalty would remain kneeling throughout the proceedings. The choicest food was reserved for the top table, but might be passed down to lesser mortals as a mark of favour. Along the walls stood buffets groaning with plate; candles were often placed in front of this plate, to reflect more light.
The centrepiece of a feast would be a prodigy dish, such as a roasted peacock re-dressed in its plumage7 or pies baked in the shape of St. Paul’s Cathedral. But the pièce de résistance was the subtlety, an artistic confection brought in at the end of every course and offered to the high table. Subtleties, which originated in Burgundy, were the opus magnus of the Confectioner’s artistry, and were made entirely of sugar and almond paste, moulded into fantastic sculptures up to two or three feet high, then painted and gilded. Subtleties, which were unsurprisingly “an assault for valiant teeth,”8 might be in the form of scenes from romances, myths, battles, or religious works; some represented coats of arms, others ships, castles, churches—Wolsey served a subtlety of St. Paul’s Cathedral9—or even representations of the guest of honour. Many had some political significance, and most bore mottoes. At Garter feasts, “a George on horseback” had been customary since 1440.10
Feasts could last for several hours. Once, when the King got bored, he amused himself by throwing sugarplums at his guests.11 On a few other occasions, he himself served them.
Such feasting could stretch the resources of the kitchens beyond their limits, and sometimes temporary kitchens had to be erected in the palace gardens, as at Greenwich on Twelfth Night, 1533.12
After a court entertainment or feast, the King might hold a banquet for the most honoured guests. A banquet might be a grand meal, but it was usually a dessert of sweet dishes and confectionary, known as the void, and it was usually held in the intimacy of King or Queen’s privy chamber or in one of the banqueting houses in the palace gardens. A banquet was a gourmet’s delight, with only the best and rarest foods and wines being served in the richest of settings.
Banquets were served buffet style, with the guests helping themselves after the servants had been dismissed. Among the delicacies were suckets (pieces of fruit in syrup, which were eaten with forklike sucket spoons), 13 marchpane, jellies, biscuits, “kissing comfits” of sugar fondant, and mounds of syllabub called Spanish paps.14 Much of this food and wine was intended to act as an aphrodisiac. Later, comfits such as apples with caraway seeds and sugared spices were passed round on ornate spice plates: Henry had one of silver gilt set upon four antique heads with an elaborate cover of silver, agate, porcelain, and emerald chased with roses and fleurs-de-lys.15 At the end of the evening, the King and Queen were ceremonially presented with their gold cups, and hippocras and wafers were served.16 Then the company departed, many, presumably, to amorous adventures.
The King’s daily life was governed by ritual.17 Even when he was not on show to the world, he was rarely alone, even in his privy lodgings or stool chamber. His Gentlemen, Grooms, Ushers, or pages would usually be in attendance. Four knights acting as Esquires of the Body waited upon the King day and night, two each to a shift.
At 7 A.M. every day, the morning watch of the Yeomen of the Guard would relieve the night watch in the presence chamber, and the Ushers would take their places at the door of the privy chamber, ready to challenge all who wished to enter. The King rose at around 8 A.M. By then, the Grooms and pages had lit the fire, ensured it was not smoking, cleaned and tidied the royal apartments, and tried—not always successfully—to awaken the Esquires of the Body, who slept in the “pallet chamber” next door to the royal bedchamber.18 Sometimes the King complained that they were still snoring when he was up and dressed.
Each morning, a Yeoman of the Wardrobe would bring the freshly brushed clothes chosen by the King to the door of the privy chamber, and there pass them to a Groom or page, who would hand them to the King’s Gentlemen who were waiting to attend him. Meanwhile, the Esquires of the Body would have entered Henry’s bedchamber “to array him and dress him in his [under] clothes.”19 Clean body linen, strewn with fresh herbs provided by Mrs. Harris, the King’s laundress, was kept in one of two chests in the bedchamber; the other chest held the dirty linen awaiting collection by Mrs. Harris, who, out of her wages, which gradually rose to £20 (£6,000) a year, had to pay for the two chests and the herbs, as well as sweet powder and soap, and wood for her fire.20 Every week, she washed the King’s clothes and all his other linen, including fourteen breakfast cloths, eight hand towels, and thirty-six napkins.21
Any other garments needed by the Esquires were handed to them at the bedchamber door by a Groom. Then, “loosely dressed,” Henry would emerge into the privy chamber, where his Gentlemen had the privilege of completing his robing. No Groom was allowed “to lay hands upon the royal person, or intermeddle with dressing, except it be to warm clothes and hand these to the Gentlemen; both Grooms and Ushers must keep a convenient distance from the King’s person, not too homely or bold advancing themselves.” 22
When the King was dressed, he seated himself on a chair with a footstool, and a kerchief was laid around his shoulders. Then Penny, his barber, came to shave him, bringing a basin of water scented with cloves; cloths; knives; combs of ivory, bone, or horn;23 and scissors in case the royal hair or beard needed trimming. Since Penny came into such close contact with his sovereign, he was required to keep himself “pure and clean” and avoid “vile persons” and “misguided women.” 24
Nowhere in the Household Ordinances is there any reference to the King bathing. Although he had bathrooms at most of his houses, and wooden tubs at others, we do not know how often he used them. He certainly took herbal baths for medicinal purposes in winter, and, for fear of catching evil humours, avoided bathing during plague epidemics25— which suggests he was taking baths at other times; he was a fastidious man, and would surely not have gone to the trouble of installing so many sophisticated bathrooms
if he did not intend to use them.
The King’s bathroom, or “bain” (French for bath), in the Bayne Tower at Hampton Court, built in 1529, had a ceiling laced with gilded battens, and window seats. The bath was attached to the wall, and there were taps for hot and cold water, the hot water being heated by a stove in the next room. There were comparable facilities at the Tower, Windsor, Beaulieu, Bridewell, and even in some lesser houses; all were on the first floor near the royal bedchamber.26 During the latter part of his reign, the King built himself huge sunken baths on the ground floor, like those of Francis I of France at Fontainebleau; that at Woodstock had water piped from a spring called Rosamund’s Well, and was cold in summer and warm in winter.27 There was a similar bath at Hampton Court, and another was excavated at Whitehall in the 1930s. The latter is known to have been equipped with thirty-five towels of Holland linen, washing cloths, bathrobes, pails, and sheets and sponges for lining the bath.28 At Beaulieu and Greenwich, the bathrooms contained folding beds complete with curtains: 29 it was customary for a bather to retire to bed for a time after a bath to ensure that he did not take a chill.
There was a garderobe adjacent to each of the King’s bedchambers, and sometimes a stool chamber; those at Greenwich and Hampton Court had pictures and bookshelves.30 A close stool was a pewter chamber pot set in an elaborate boxed seat; one of the King’s close stools was upholstered in black velvet, silk fringing, and two thousand gilt nails, and it had “elbows and side pieces.”31 It is often claimed that the King did not use close stools until the end of his reign, but his sister Mary took one to France with her in 1514,32 so they must have been in use much earlier. Five of Henry’s were recorded at Hampton Court in 1547: one was covered in green velvet and silk, “embroidered with the King’s arms and badges.”33 Two of his close stools at Ampthill had backs, and some even had their own cisterns for flushing. 34
The title of Groom of the Stool derived from that gentleman’s privilege of attending his sovereign whenever he used the close stool; his duties were to provide him with a flannel “to wipe his nether end”35 and to summon a Yeoman of the Chamber to empty and clean the pot. Sir Thomas Heneage, Groom of the Stool from 1536 to 1546, was witness to the King’s chronic constipation and his efforts to relieve it, and was present when, one night in 1539, the King took a laxative: “he slept until two of the clock in the morning, and then rose to go to the stool, which by working of the pills had a very fair siege.”36
Once he was ready to face the world, the King “came forth” from his privy chamber, and was immediately crowded by the hordes of courtiers and petitioners waiting outside.37 Once he had fought his way past them, having graciously dealt with some requests, he went in procession to mass in the chapel royal, then, whenever possible, spent the morning hunting before returning for a late dinner. Alternatively he might read or work in his library, visit the stables to see his horses, or spend time mixing the medicinal remedies that he was fond of devising. Often, he was to be found relaxing in the privy chamber in the company of his Gentlemen, and might not come forth at all that day.38
The King’s schedule meant that he did not always eat his meals at the same time as the rest of the court.39 Since the thirteenth century English monarchs had enjoyed the advantages of having their own privy kitchens: mealtimes could be flexible, the King could be served the choicest menus, and there was less risk of his food being poisoned, accidentally or deliberately. At Hampton Court, the privy kitchen was directly below the King’s apartments, connected by a spiral stair, so meals arrived hot, 40 which was not always the case elsewhere. There were similar arrangements in other royal residences, and on the Queen’s Side.41 The royal menus were always decided by the Master Cook in consultation with the King’s physicians and the Sewer, and the Gentlemen Ushers let the privy kitchen know when and where Henry wished his meals to be served and how many guests would be present. The Ushers were also responsible for ensuring that the table was set properly and that everyone was seated in the right place. The King always sat in the middle of the high table, “a little above the salt, his face being to the whole view of the chamber.” 42
Even when he ate in the privacy of his privy chamber, the King’s meals were always conducted with great ceremony and formality. After arriving with the Lord Chamberlain to the sound of trumpets, he sat alone at a table set up before the chair under his canopy of estate, and his Gentlemen and Grooms served him bareheaded on bended knee, while favoured courtiers, councillors, clergy, and men of letters would stand behind and to the side, conversing with their master.43 The two Esquires of the Body sat at Henry’s feet throughout the meal.44
The King’s damask tablecloth might be embroidered with flowers, knots, crowns, or fleurs-de-lys, while the water in the royal finger bowl had been heated in a chafing dish.45 On the table, in front of the King, would be the splendid gold nef, a prestige item of plate fashioned like a ship, which held his knife, spoon, napkin, and salt. His manchet bread would be wrapped in a “coverpain” of embroidered linen or silk, 46 and his meat placed by the Carver on his plate, which might be of silver gilt or marble, with a depression for salt at one edge.47 Thirteen dishes in two courses were served to the King at each meal, at a cost equivalent to a staggering £1,285.48 His favourite dishes included venison, game pies stuffed with oranges, haggis, eels, baked lampreys, salmon, sturgeon, ling, and an early version of beef olives (beef stuffed with forcemeat and vegetables).49 For the void, he preferred custards, fritters, tarts, jelly, and cream of almonds. He was always eager to try new and rare foods, such as porpoise, which became a Tudor delicacy, and even, probably, coconuts, or what were described as “nuts of India, greater than a man’s fist.”50 All the food prepared for the King would be assayed for poison by the Master Cook and the Lord Steward before it was presented at table.
When Henry had finished eating, the Carver scraped the cloth free of crumbs with a knife, and the King stood while a kneeling Usher brushed crumbs from his clothes. He remained standing while the table was cleared and removed, again with meticulous ceremony, then washed his hands in a basin brought by a nobleman.
A pen-and-ink drawing of Henry VIII dining in solitary state in his privy chamber is in the British Museum, and shows officers of the Chamber, holding their staves of office, standing to one side, while on the other is a buffet displaying plate.51
If the King was entertaining guests in his presence chamber, a fanfare would herald the arival of a procession led by the Lord Steward and officers of the Greencloth, followed by the Master Cook, the Carver, the Sewer—the latter two were always of noble or gentle birth, and wore towels of office over their shoulders—and Grooms bearing the food on heavy silver-gilt chargers.52 The King’s Cupbearer would assay his drink from a few drops poured into the lid of the royal cup, which might be of precious metal, mother of pearl, alabaster, porcelain, or colourful, ornamented glass imported from Venice.53 When the King had placed his cup on the table, drinks might then be served to the rest of the company. The King’s leftovers were always given to the poor.54
It was not unknown for Henry to take his meals in his secret lodgings, where there was less formality. In 1528, for example, he “supped apart” in “a chamber within a tower” at Hunsdon.55
In the afternoon, the King might exercise his horses, or he might receive ambassadors, often summoning them at very short notice. After supper, he sometimes attended to state business, but his councillors complained that he often put it off until late at night.56
It was rare for the King and Queen to dine together, but Henry often took supper in his wife’s apartments, usually as a prelude to sleeping with her. Sometimes, without warning, and often at a late hour, he brought guests to join them at table. Alternatively, he spent the evenings watching some entertainment, making music, or gambling with his courtiers. When it was dark, he might go up to the palace roof to study the stars, using “speculative glasses.”57 Sometimes, late at night, he would order a snack such as a bowl of aleberry58—a kind o
f bread pudding flavoured with ale—and a host of servants would have to bestir themselves.
In the evening, the King’s bed, which had been stripped and left airing all day, was “arrayed” to a prescribed ritual laid down in the Household Ordinances. It took ten men to accomplish this. A Groom was sent to collect clean linen, pillows, and blankets from the Wardrobe of the Beds; then he stood at the end of the bed holding a torch while eight Yeomen of the Chamber and Wardrobe lined up, four at each side of the bed. A Gentleman Usher was in charge of the proceedings, which began with a Yeoman thrusting a dagger into the straw of the bottom mattress to rout out any hidden assassin. The Usher saw that the King’s sword was hung within reach of the bed, and that a poleaxe was at hand in the bedchamber, in case Henry was attacked during the night.
A canvas cover was placed on the mattress and “a bed of down” was shaken and beaten and laid on top. A Yeoman had to “roll up and down” it to make sure that no harmful object was hidden inside. Then the bed was made up with a bolster and pillows, and fine linen sheets, blankets, and a rich counterpoint lined with ermine, which were smoothed and tucked in with great precision. Finally, each Yeoman made the sign of the Cross over the bed, kissed the places where he had touched it, and— until 1526, when the rules were changed—sprinkled them with holy water. Then the curtains were drawn and a mantle of crimson velvet furred with ermine was laid out for the King to wear when he arose from bed. When the Usher and Yeomen withdrew to refresh themselves with bread and wine, the Groom had to remain, kneeling, to guard the bed until the King arrived. Before then, a Yeoman of the Wardrobe would place a “nightstool and urinal” in the bedchamber. The Queen’s bed was made by her ladies, following a similar ritual.59
The King rarely retired before midnight, “which is our accustomed hour at court to go to bed.”60 His Gentlemen and Esquires of the Body disrobed him and put on his nightgown, which was usually white and made of fine linen or silk. A basin of water and cloth were brought so he could wash his face and clean his teeth. His attendants combed his hair; put on his “nightbonnet,” which might be of scarlet or black velvet, embroidered;61 helped him into bed; and lit a night-light. Then they made obeisance and withdrew.62 Two Yeomen of the Chamber slept on pallets outside the door, and the two Esquires of the Body were nearby in the pallet chamber. Outside in the presence chamber, the night watch of the Yeomen of the Guard had come on duty, and would be vigilant for suspicious noises or smells of burning, for in an age of candles, fire was an ever-present risk.