Page 38 of The Ghost in the Machine

  * Incidentally, even the Don't-Tamper-with-Nature Brigade no longer seriously objects to chlorine or other antiseptics being put into tap water.

  It is possible that totalitarian countries would try to resist it. But today even Iron Curtains have become porous; hot jazz, mini skirts, discotheques and other bourgeois inventions are spreading irresistibly. When the ruling élite started experimenting with the new medicine, and discovered that it made them see things in an altogether different light -- then, and only then, would the world be ripe for a global disarmament conference which is not a sinister farce. And should there be a transitional period during which one side alone went ahead with the cure, while the other persisted in its paranoid ways, there would be none of the risks of unilateral disarmament involved; on the contrary, the mutated side would be stronger because more rational in its long-term policies, less frightened and less hysterical.

  I do not think this is science fiction; and I am confident that the type of reader to whom this book is addressed will not think so either. Every writer has a favourite type of imaginary reader, a friendly phantom but highly critical, whose opinion is the only one that matters, with whom he is engaged in a continuous, exhausting dialogue. I feel sure, as I said, that my friendly phantom reader has sufficient imagination to extrapolate from the recent, breath-taking advances of biology into the future, and to concede that the solution outlined here is in the realm of the possible. What worries me is that he will not like it; that he might be repelled and disgusted by the idea that we should rely for our salvation on molecular chemistry instead of a spiritual rebirth. I share his distress, but I see no alternative. I hear him exclaim: 'By trying to sell us your Pills, you are adopting that crudely materialistic attitude and naive scientific hubris, which you pretend to oppose.' I still oppose it. But I do not believe that it is 'materialistic' to take a realistic view of the condition of man; nor is it hubris to feed thyroid extracts to children who would otherwise grow into cretins. To use our brain to cure its own shortcomings seems to me a brave and dedicated enterprise. Like the reader, I would prefer to set my hopes on moral persuasion by word and example. But we are a mentally sick race, and as such deaf to persuasion. It has been tried from the age of the prophets to Albert Schweitzer; and the result has been, as Swift said, that 'we have just enough religion to make us hate, but not enough to love each other'. That applies to all religions, theistic or secular, whether taught by Moses or Marx or Mao Tse Tung; and Swift's anguished cry: 'not die here in a rage, like a poisoned rat in a hole' has acquired an urgency as never before.

  Nature has let us down, God seems to have left the receiver off the hook, and time is running out. To hope for salvation to be synthesised in the laboratory may seem materialistic, crankish, or naive; but, to tell the truth, there is a Jungian twist to it, for it reflects the ancient alchemist's dream to concoct the elixir vitae. What we expect from it, however, is not eternal life, nor the transformation of base metal into gold, but the transformation of homo maniacus into homo sapiens. When man decides to take his fate into his own hands, that possibility will be within reach.

  POSTSCRIPT TO THE DANUBE EDITION

  In the course of the ten years since this book was written, some of the major heresies that it propounds have become a little less heretical and the orthodox outlook in the life sciences has become a little less rigid. Thus I was gratified to discover that the term 'holon', which I coined rather apologetically in Chapter III of the present volume and which occupies a central position in it, has aquired a certain academic respectability. No less gratifying was the positive response to a symposium which I organised in 1967, quasi as a sequel to this book: Beyond Reductionism -- New Perspectives in the Life Sciences. Its participants were eminent academics in their respective fields, and their papers and discussions add up to a kind of manifesto, indicative of the change in intellectual climate.* *Beyond Reductionism -- New Perspectives in the Life Sciences. The Alpbach Symposium, ed. A. Koestler and J.R. Smythies (London, 1969). Participants: L. von Bertalanffy, J.S. Bruner, B. Bruner, V.E. Frankl, F.A. Hayek, H. Hyden, B. Inhelder, S.S. Kety, P.D. MacLean, D. McNeill, J. Piaget, J.R. Smythies, W.H. Thorpe, C.H. Waddington, P.A. Weiss. In fairness to the reader it should be pointed out that the majority of the papers are rather technical.

  That change has many facets, but its overall effect is the shedding of the crude materialism of the nineteenth century, and the concept of man as a mechanical clockwork. Although post-Einsteinian physics has de-materialised matter as it were, that mechanistic outlook still lingers on in the sciences of life, particularly in psychology and the theory of evolution. The aim of Part I and Part II of this book is to provide tentative glimpses of an alternative world-view. Part III is concerned with the predicament of man -- his urge to self-destruction -- and offers some equally tentative suggestions for a possible remedy. While Parts I and II had, as I said, a fairly favourable reception, most critics reacted to Part III with violent abuse and misrepresentation of its contents. This seents to indicate that it touched a vital nerve -- which it intended to do.

  Denston, July 1975

  A.K.

  APPENDIX I GENERAL PROPERTIES OF OPEN HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS (O.H.S.) 1. The Janus Effect 1.1 The organism in its structural aspect is not an aggregation of elementary parts, and in its functional aspects not a chain of elementary units of behaviour. 1.2 The organism is to be regarded as a multi-levelled hierarchy of semi-autonomous sub-wholes, branching into sub-wholes of a lower order, and so on. Sub-wholes on any level of the hierarchy are referred to as holons. 1.3 Parts and wholes in an absolute sense do not exist in the domain of life. The concept of the holon is intended to reconcile the atomistic and holistic approaches. 1.4 Biological holons are self-regulating open systems which display both the autonomous properties of wholes and the dependent properties of parts. This dichotomy is present on every level of every type of hierarchic organisation, and is referred to as the Janus Effect or Janus principle. 1.5 More generally, the term 'holon' may be applied to any stable biological or social sub-whole which displays rule-governed behaviour and/or structural Gestalt-constancy. Thus organelles and homologous organs are evolutionary holons; morphogenetic fields are ontogenetic holons; the ethologist's 'fixed action-patterns' and the sub-routines of acquired skills are behavioural holons; phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases are linguistic holons; individuals, families, tribes, nations are social holons. 2. Dissectibility 2.1 Hierarchies are 'dissectible' into their constituent branches, on which the holons form the nodes; the branching lines represent the channels of communication and control. 2.2 The number of levels which a hierarchy comprises is a measure of its 'depth', and the number of holons on any given level is called its 'span' (Simon). 3. Rules and Strategies 3.1 Functional holons are governed by fixed sets of rules and display more or less flexible strategies. 3.2 The rules -- referred to as the system's canon -- determine its invariant properties, its structural configuration and/or functional pattern. 3.3 While the canon defines the permissible steps in the holon's activity, the strategic selection of the actual step among permissible choices is guided by the contingencies of the environment. 3.4 The canon determines the rules of the game, strategy decides the course of the game. 3.5 The evolutionary process plays variations on a limited number of canonical themes. The constraints imposed by the evolutionary canon are illustrated by the phenomena of homology, homeoplasy, parallelism, convergence and the loi du balancement. 3.6 In ontogeny, the holons at successive levels represent successive stages in the development of tissues. At each step in the process of differentation, the genetic canon imposes further constraints on the holon's developmental potentials, but it retains sufficient flexibility to follow one or another alternative developmental pathway, within the range of its competence, guided by the contingencies of the environment. 3.7 Structurally, the mature organism is a hierarchy of parts within parts. Its 'dissectibility' and the relative autonomy of its constituent holons are demonstrated by transplant surgery. 3.8 Func
tionally, the behaviour of organisms is governed by 'rules of the game' which account for its coherence, stability and specific pattern. 3.9 Skills, whether inborn or acquired, are functional hierarchies, with sub-skills as holons, governed by sub-rules. 4. Integration and Self-Assertion 4.1 Every holon has the dual tendency to preserve and assert its individuality as a quasi-autonomous whole; and to function as an integrated part of an (existing or evolving) larger whole. This polarity between the Self-Assertive (S-A) and Integrative (INT) tendencies is inherent in the concept of hierarchic order: and a universal characteristic of life. The S-A tendencies are the dynamic expression of the holon's wholeness, the INT tendencies of its partness. 4.2 An analogous polarity is found in the interplay of cohesive and separative forces in stable inorganic systems, from atoms to galaxies. 4.3 The most general manifestation of the INT tendencies is the reversal of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in open systems feeding on negative entropy (Schrödinger), and the evolutionary trend towards 'spontaneously developing states of greater heterogeneity and complexity' (Herrick). 4.4 Its specific manifestations on different levels range from the symbiosis of organelles and colonial animals, through the cohesive forces in herds and flocks, to the integrative bonds in insect states and Primate societies. The complementary manifestations of the S-A tendencies are competition, individualism, and the separative forces of tribalism, nationalism, etc. 4.5 In ontogeny, the polarity is reflected in the docility and determination of growing tissues. 4.6 In adult behaviour, the self-assertive tendency of functional holons is reflected in the stubbornness of instinct rituals (fixed action-patterns), of acquired habits (handwriting, spoken accent), and in the stereotyped routines of thought; the integrative tendency is reflected in flexible adaptations, improvisations, and creative acts which initiate new forms of behaviour. 4.7 Under conditions of stress, the S-A tendency is manifested in the aggressive-defensive, adrenergic type of emotions, the INT tendency in the self-transcending (participatory, identificatory) type of emotions. 4.8 In social behaviour, the canon of a social holon represents not only constraints imposed on its actions, but also embodies maxims of conduct, moral imperatives and systems of value. 5. Triggers and Scanners 5.1 Output hierarchies generally operate on the trigger-release principle, where a relatively simple, implicit or coded signal releases complex, pre-set mechanisms. 5.2 In phylogeny, a favourable gene-mutation may, through homeorhesis (Waddington) affect the development of a whole organ in a harmonious way. 5.3 In ontogeny, chemical triggers (enzymes, inducers, hormones) release the genetic potentials of differentiating tissues. 5.4 In instinctive behaviour, sign-releasers of a simple kind trigger off Innate Releasive Mechanisms (Lorenz). 5.5 In the performance of learnt skills, including verbal skills, a generalised implicit command is spelled out in explicit terms on successive lower echelons which, once triggered into action, activate their sub-units in the appropriate strategic order, guided by feedbacks. 5.6 A holon on the n level of an output-hierarchy is represented on the (n+1) level as a unit, and triggered into action as a unit. A holon, in other words, is a system of relata which is represented on the next higher level as a relatum. 5.7 In social hierarchies (military, administrative), the same principles apply. 5.8 Input hierarchies operate on the reverse principle; instead of triggers, they are equipped with 'filter'-type devices (scanners, 'resonators', classifiers) which strip the input of noise, abstract and digest its relevant contents, according to that particular hierarchy's criteria of relevance. 'Filters' operate on every echelon through which the flow of information must pass on its ascent from periphery to centre, in social hierarchies and in the nervous system. 5.9 Triggers convert coded signals into complex output patterns. Filters convert complex input patterns into coded signals. The former may be compared to digital-to--analogue converters, the latter to analogue-to-digital converters (Miller, Pribram et al.). 5.10 In perceptual hierarchies, filtering devices range from habituation and the efferent control of receptors, through the constancy phenomena, to pattern-recognition in space or time, and to the decoding of linguistic and other forms of meaning. 5.11 Output hierarchies spell, concretise, particularise. Input hierarchies digest, abstract, generalise. 6. Arborisation and Reticulatlon 6.1 Hierarchies can be regarded as 'vertically' arborising structures whose branches interlock with those of other hierarchies at a multiplicity of levels and form 'horizontal' networks: arborisation and reticulation are complementary principles in the architecture of organisms and societies. 6.2 Conscious experience is enriched by the co-operation of several perceptual hierarchies in different sense-modalities, and within the same sense-modality. 6.3 Abstractive memories are stored in skeletonised form, stripped of irrelevant detail, according to the criteria of relevance of each perceptual hierarchy. 6.4 Vivid details of quasi-eidetic clarity are stored owing to their emotive relevance. 6.5 The impoverishment of experience in memory is counteracted to some extent by the co-operation in recall of different perceptual hierarchies with different criteria of relevance. 6.6 In sensory-motor co-ordination, local reflexes are shortcuts on the lowest level, like loops connecting traffic streams moving in opposite directions on a highway. 6.7 Skilled sensory-motor routines operate on higher levels through networks of proprioceptive and exteroceptive feedback loops within loops, which function as servo-mechanisms and keep the rider on his bicycle in a state of self-regulating, kinetic homeostasis. 6.8 While in S-R theory the contingendes of environment determine behaviour, in O.H.S. theory they merely guide, correct and stabilise pre-existing patterns of behaviour (P. Weiss). 6.9 While sensory feedbacks guide motor activities, perception in its turn is dependent on these activities, such as the various scanning motions of the eye, or the humming of a tune in aid of its auditory recall. The perceptual and motor hierarchies are so intimately co-operating on every level that to draw a categorical distinction between 'stimuli' and 'responses' becomes meaningless; they have become 'aspects of feedback loops' (Miller, Pribram et al.). 6.10 Organisms and societies operate in a hierarchy of environments, from the local environment of each holon to the 'total field', which may include imaginary environments derived from extrapolation in space and time. 7. Regulation Channels 7.1 The higher echelons in a hierarchy are not normally in direct communication with lowly ones, and vice versa; signals are transmitted through 'regulation channels', one step at a time, up or down. 7.2 The pesudo-explanations of verbal behaviour and other human skills as the manipulation of words, or the chaining of operants, leaves a void between the apex of the hierarchy and its terminal branches, between thinking and spelling. 7.3 The short-circuiting of intermediary levels by directing conscious attention at processes which otherwise function automatically, tends to cause disturbances ranging from awkwardness to psychosomatic disorders. 8. Mechanisation and Freedom 8.1 Holons on successively higher levels of the hierarchy show increasingly complex, more flexible and less predictable patterns of activity, while on successive lower levels we find increasingly mechanised, stereotyped and predictable patterns. 8.2 All skills, whether innate or acquired, tend with increasing practice to become automatised routines. This process can be described as the continual transformation of 'mental' into 'mechanical' activities. 8.3 Other things being equal, a monotonous enviroment facilitates mechanisation. 8.4 Conversely, new or unexpected contingencies require decisions to be referred to higher levels of the hierarchy, an upward shift of controls from 'mechanical' to 'mindful' activities. 8.5 Each upward shift is reflected by a more vivid and precise consciousness of the ongoing activity; and, since the variety of alternative choices increases with the increasing complexity on higher levels, each upward shift is accompanied by the subjective experience of freedom of decision. 8.6 The hierarchic approach replaces dualistic theories by a serialistic hypothesis in which 'mental' and 'mechanical' appear as relative attributes of a unitary process, the dominance of one or the other depending on changes in the level of control of ongoing operations. 8.7 Consciousness appears as an +emergent+ quality in phylogeny and ontogeny, which, from primitive beginnings, evolves t
owards more complex and precise states. It is the highest manifestation of the Integrative Tendency (4.3) to extract order out of disorder, and information out of noise. 8.8 The self can never be completely represented in its own awareness, nor can its actions be completely predicted by any conceivable information-processing device. Both attempts lead to infinite regress. 9. Equilibrium and Disorder 9.1 An organism or society is said to be in dynamic equilibrium if the S-A and INT tendendes of its holons counterbalance each other. 9.2 The term 'equilibrium' in a hierarchic system does not refer to relations between parts on the same level, but to the relation between part and whole (the whole being represented by the agency which controls the part from the next higher level). 9.3 Organisms live by transactions with their environment. Under normal conditions, the stresses set up in the holons involved in the transaction are of a transitory nature, and equilibrium will be restored on its completion. 9.4 If the challenge to the organism exceeds a critical limit, the balance may be upset, the over-excited holon may tend to get out of control, and to assert itself to the detriment of the whole, or monopolise its functions -- whether the holon be an organ, a cognitive structure (idée fixe), an individual, or a social group. The same may happen if the co-ordinative powers of the whole are so weakened that it is no longer able to control its parts (Child). 9.5 The opposite type of disorder occurs when the power of the whole over its parts erodes their autonomy and individuality. This may lead to a regression of the INT tendencies from mature forms of social integration to primitive forms of identification, and to the quasi-hypnotic phenomena of group-psychology. 9.6 The process of identification may arouse vicarious emotions of the aggressive type. 9.7 The rules of conduct of a social holon are not reducible to the rules of conduct of its members. 9.8 The egotism of the social holon feeds on the altruism of its members. 10. Regeneration 10.1 Critical challenges to an organism or society can produce degenerative or regenerative effects. 10.2 The regenerative potential of organisms and societies manifests itself in fluctuations from the highest level of integration down to earlier, more primitive levels, and up again to a new, modified pattern. Processes of this type seem to play a major part in biological and mental evolution, and are symbolised in the universal death-and-rebirth motive in mythology. N.B. The concept of the Holon, and of the Open Hierarchic System, attempts to reconcile atomism and holism. Some of the propositions listed above may appear trivial, some rest on incomplete evidence, others will need correcting and qualifying. They are merely intended to provide a basis for discussion among kindred spirits in both cultures, in search of an alternative to the robot image of man. The controversial issues discussed in Part Three of this volume were not included in this list. APPENDIX II ON NOT FLOGGING DEAD HORSES* * See pp. 4, 9, 202, etc. The initials S.P.C.D.H. stand for 'Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Dead Horses'. It is a secret society with international ramifications and with a considerable influence on the intellectual climate of our time. I must mention a few examples of its activities. The German Government during the war killed six million civilians in its death factories. This was at first kept secret; when the facts seeped through, the S.P.C.D.H. took the line that to keep harping on them and bringing those responsible to trial was unfair and in bad taste -- flogging a dead horse. The Soviet Government, during the years of Stalin's rule, committed barbarities on an equal scale, though in a different style. If you tried to call public attention to them in the progressive circles of the West, you were denounced as a cold warrior, slanderer and maniac. When the facts were officially admitted by Stalin's successor, the issue was instantly classified by the S.P.C.D.H. as a dead horse, although it went on ravaging other countries from Peking to Berlin. English insularism, class distinctions, social snobbery, trial-by-accent, are all declared to be dead horses, and the inane neighings that fill the air must be emanating from ghosts. The same applies to American dollar-worship, materialism, conformism. You can continue the list as a parlour game. In the Sciences, the S.P.C.D.H. is particularly active. We are constantly assured that the crudely mechanistic nineteenth-century conceptions in biology, medicine, psychology are dead, and yet one constantly comes up against them in the columns of textbooks, technical journals, and in lecture rooms. In all this, Behaviourist psychology occupies a strategic key-position. This is the case not only in the United States, where the Watson-Hull-Skinner tradition is still immensely powerful and keeps an invisible stranglehold (by 'negative reinforcements') on academic psychology. In England, Behaviourism has entered into an alliance with logical positivism and linguistic philosophy; but perhaps its most ominous influence is on clinical psychiatry. 'Behaviour therapy', as practised for instance at Maudsley Hospital, is symptom-therapy in its crudest form, based on Pavlovian and Skinnerian conditioning. The philosophy behind it is summed up in the slogan of our leading Behavioural therapist, H.J. Eysenck:* 'There is no neurosis underlying the symptoms, only the symptom itself.' (In a memorable attack on Eysenck, Kathleen Nott remarked that 'a symptom is always of something', and pointed out the preposterous implications of the slogan. [1]) * Professor in Psychology in the University of London, and Director of the Psychological Department at the Institute of psychiatry (Maudsley and Bethlehem Royal Hospitals). But how is it to be explained that while Behaviourism is still floating like a dense smog over the landscape, so many scientists of the younger generation, who are almost stifled by it, keep pretending that the sky is blue, and Behaviourism a matter of the past? Partly, I think, for the reasons mentioned earlier on (p. 4): though they honestly believe that they have outgrown the sterile orthodoxy of their elders, its terminology and jargon have got into their bloodstream, and they cannot get away from thinking in terms of stimulus, response, conditioning, reinforcement, operants, and so on. Sidney Hook once wrote that 'Aristotle projected the grammar of the Greek language on the cosmos', and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that Pavlov, Watson and Skinner achieved a similar feat when they injected their reflex-philosophy into the sciences of life. Academics, brought up in that tradition, may reject the more obvious absurdities of Watson and Skinner, but nevertheless continue to employ their terminology and methodology, and thus remain unconsciously tied to the axioms implied in them. A personal experience -- one among many, and of a quite harmless sort -- may serve as an illustration. When the American edition of The Act of Creation was published, Professor George A. Miller of Harvard University wrote an article-review about it in that excellent monthly, the Scientific American. It went on for nine columns, so there could be no misunderstanding due to shortage of space. It is not my intention to bore the reader by answering Miller's criticism of the theory proposed in the book -- which would be out of place here; I am only concerned with his attitude to Behaviourism. This attitude is known, from his books and writings, as one of almost passionate rejection of Skinner, S-R theory, and the flat-earth approach in general. And yet, after referring to the attack on the Behaviourist position in The Act of Creation, Miller continued (his italics): Attacks on stimulus-response theories (which represent modern associationism) are of course nothing new. When one attacks strict stimulus-respome Behaviourism these days, one is on the side of the big battalions. Yet Koestler writes as though it were still the 1930s and Behaviourism were in its prime. In 1964 most psychologists who still work in this tradition have introduced hypothetical mechanisms to mediate between stimulus and response. They think they are working on exactly the kind of processes Koestler calls bisociation; they are sure to be angered by Koestler's sarcastic misrepresentation of the current situation, and I cannot say that I blame them. [2] Now I mentioned earlier on (p. 23) that the 'hypothetical mechanism' which the Behaviourists introduced 'to mediate between stimulus and response' are (as the term itself betrays) no more than face-saving devices. Even Behaviourists had to admit that the same stimulus S (e.g., the fall of an apple) may produce a variety of different responses (e.g., the theory of universal gravity); and that there must be something happening in the person's head between the S and the R, which t
hey had left out of account. So they decided to call that something -- which should be the principal concern of any psychology worth its name -- 'hypothetical mechanisms' (or 'intervening variables'); and then promptly swept it under the carpet so that they might return, with a clean conscience, to their rat experiments. It was a naively transparent manceuvre of evasion, and Professor Miller is of course fully aware of this. In his most thought-provoking book (which I have repeatedly quoted [3]) there is no mention whatsoever of 'hypothetical mechanisms which mediate between S and R', because he rejects the whole S-R concept with justified scorn as an anachronism (p. 101n.). He is not only 'on the side of the winning battalions', but even a sort of battalion commander. Two columns after rising to the defence of Behaviourism against my 'sarcastic misrepresentations' he declares that, as regards the philosophical background 'I can admire Koestler's courageous attempt to clean out what obviously seem to him the Augean Stables of psychology. I share most of his prejudices and approve most of his aims.' Yet another column further down, at the end of the article, he concludes that perhaps, after all, the Behaviourists today are right (dead horses in Augean Stables?). I have mentioned this episode because it beautifully exemplifies that ambivalence I have been talking about. Behaviourism was the milk which this generation of scientists imbibed in their cradle; and even if it was bottle-fed and made of dry powder, you may criticise your mum, but if a stranger does it, beware. Dissident Catholics, Marxists, Freudians, are liable to the same deep-rooted ambivalence. They may be doubters or rebels, but when the faith which they have abandoned is attacked from outside, they must rise to its defence; and as a last resort they will pretend that it is dead anyway, and not worth bothering about. Hence the S.P.C.D.H. A Jesuit priest, whom I much admire, was once taken to task about the temperature and other conditions in Hell. He obviously resented these crude remarks, but replied with a sweet smile that though Hell exists, it is kept permanently empty by a loving God; so why revive this outdated controversy? . . . Yet millions and millions of believers have lived, loved and died poisoned by mortal fear of everlasting Hell. I believe that the ultimate effects of ratomorphic philosophy are no less pernicious, though it acts in more indirect and devious ways. I shall conclude with another quotation from v. Bertalanffy, with whose views on this subject I strongly sympathise: Let us face the fact: a large part of modern psychology is a sterile and pompous scholasticism which, with the blinkers of preconceived notions or superstitions, doesn't see the obvious; which covers the triviality of its results and ideas with a preposterous language bearing no resemblance to normal English or sound theory, and which provides modern society with the techniques for the progressive stultification of mankind. It has been justly said that American positivist philosophy -- and the same even more applies to psychology -- has achieved the rare feat of being both extremely boring and frivolous in its unconcern with human issues. Basic for interpretation of animal and human behaviour was the stimulus-response scheme. So far as it is not innate or instinctive, behaviour is said to be shaped by outside influences that have met the organism in the past: classical conditioning after Pavlov, reinforcement after Skinner, early childhood experience after Freud. Hence training, education and human life in general are essentially responses to outside conditions: beginning in early childhood with toilet training and other manipulations whereby socially acceptable behaviour is gratified, undesirable behaviour blocked; continuing with education which is best carried through according to Skinnerian principles of reinforcement of correct responses and by means of teaching machines; and ending in adult man where affluent society makes everybody happy conditioning him, in a strictly scientific manner, by the mass media into the perfect consumer. Hypothetical mechanisms, intervening variables, auxiliary hypotheses have been introduced -- without changing the basic concepts or general outlook. But what we need are not some hypothetical mechanisms better to explain some aberrations of the behaviour of the laboratory rat; what we need is a new conception of man. I don't care a jot whether Professor A, B or C have modified Watson, Hull and Freud here and there and have replaced their blunt statements by more qualified and sophisticated circumlocutions. I do care a lot that the spirit is still all-pervading in our society; reducing man to the lower aspects of his animal nature, manipulating him into a feeble-minded automaton of consumption or a marionette of political power, systematically stultifying him by a perverse system of education, in short, dehumanising him ever farther by means of a sophisticated psychological technology. It is the expressed or implicit contention that there is no essential difference between rat and man which makes American psychology so profoundly disturbing. When the intellectual élite, the thinkers and leaders, see in man nothing but an overgrown rat, then it is time to be alarmed. [4] REFERENCES PREFACE 1. Hardy (1965). 2. Thorpe (1966A). 3. Lorenz (1966). PART ONE: ORDER I. THE POVERTY OF PSYCHOLOGY 1. Watson (1913) pp. 158-67. 2. Watson (1928) p. 6. 3. Loc. cit. 4. Burt (1962) p. 229. 5. Skinner (1953) pp. 30-1. 6. Harlow (1953) pp. 23-32. 7. Skinner (1953) p. 150. 8. Hull (1943) p. 56. 9. Skinner (1953) pp. 108-9. 10. Skinner (1938) p. 22. 11. Watson (1928) p. 6. 12. Skinner (1938) p. 21. 13. Ibid, p. 62. 14. Skinner (1953) p. 65. 15. Chomsky (1959). 16. Skinner (1957) p. 163. 17. Ibid, p. 438. 18. Ibid, p. 439. 18a. Ibid, p. 150. 19. Ibid, p. 206. 19a. Watson (1928) pp. 198 ff. 20. Skinner (1953) p. 252. 21. Watson (1928) pp. 3-6. 22. Sherrington (1906) p. 8. 23. Herrick (1961) pp. 253-4. 24. Watson (1928) p. 11. II. THE CHAIN OF WORDS AND THE TREE OF LANGUAGE 1. Calvin, ed. (1961). 2. Op. cit., pp. 376-8. 3. Skinner, quoted by Chomsky (1959) p. 548. 4. Liberman, Cooper et al. (1965). 5. Lashley (1951) p. 116. 6. McNeill (1966). 7. Brown (1965). 8. McNeill, op. cit. 9. Ibid. 10. Quoted by Lashley (1951) p. 117. 11. Popper (1959) p. 280. 12. James (1890) Vol. I, p. 253. 13. Skinner (1957). 14. Miller (1964A). III. THE HOLON 1. Needham, J. (1932). 2. Simon (1962). 3. Jacobson (1955). 4. Simon, op. cit. 5. Jenkins (1965). IV. INDIVIDUALS AND DIVIDUALS 1. Simon, op. cit. 2. Sager (1965). 3. v. Bertalanffy (1952) pp. 48, 50. 4. Dunbar (1946). 5. Weiss and Taylor (1960). 6. Pollock (1965). V. TRIGGERS AND FILTERS 1. Thorpe (1956) pp. 37-8. 2. Bartlett (1958). 3. Gregory (1966) Chapter 11. 4. Kottenhoff (1957). 5. Lashley (1951) p. 128. VI. A MEMORY FOR FORGETTING 1. Koestler and Jenkins (1965A). 2. Koestler (1964) pp. 524-5. 3. Jaensch (1930), Kluever (1931). 4. Drever (1962). 5. Simon, op cit. VII. THE HELMSMAN 1. Coghill (1929). 2. Cannon (1939). 3. Wiener (1948) pp. 113-14. 4. Weiss (1951) p. 141. 5. v. Bertalanffy (1952) p. 119. 6. Miller et al. (1960) pp. 18, 30. VIII. HABIT AND IMPROVISATION 1. Thorpe (1956) p. 19. 1a, Baehrends (1941).i 2. Hingston (1926-7), quoted by Thorpe (1956) p. 39. 3. Thorpe (1956) p. 262. 4. Tinbergen (1953) p. 116. 5. v. Bertalanffy (1952) pp. 17-18. PART TWO: BECOMING IX. THE STRATEGY OF EMBRYOS 1. Huxley, J. (1954) p. 14. 1a. Kuhn (1962). 2. Clayton (1964) p. 70. 3. Simpson, Pittendrigh and Tiffany (1957) p. 330. 4. Bonner (1965) p. 136. 5. Ibid, p. 142. X. EVOLUTION: THEME AND VARIATIONS 1. Waddington (1952). 1a. Medawar (1960) p. 62. 2. Huxley, J. (1954) p. 12. 3. Waddington (1952). 4. Whyte (1965) p. 50. 5. Gorini (1966). 6. de Beer (1940) p. 148 and Hardy (1965) p. 212. 7. Hardy (1965) p. 211. 8. St. Hilaire, quoted by Hardy (1965) p. 50. 9. Goethe. Editor's Preface (1872) pp. xii-xiii. 10. Thompson (1942) pp. 1082-4. 11. Simpson, Pittendrigh and Tiffany (1957) p. 472. 12. Simpson (1949) p. 180. 13. v. Bertalanffy (1952) p. 105. 14. Spurway (1949), quoted by Whyte (1965). 15. Whyte (1965). XI. EVOLUTION CTD: PROGRESS BY INITIATIVE 1. Simpson (1950), quoted by Hardy (1965) p. 14. 2. Sinnott (1961), p. 45. 3. Muller (1943), quoted by Sinnott (1961) p. 45. 4. Simpson et al. (1957) p. 354. 5. Coghill (1929). 6. Hardy (1965) p. 170. 7. Ibid, p. 178. 8. Ibid, p. 176. 9. Ibid, pp. 172, 192, 193. 10. Waddington (1957) p. 182. 11. Ibid, pp. 166-7. 12. Tinbergen (1953) p. 55. 13. Ewer (1960), quoted by Hardy (1965) p. 187. 14. Herrick (1961) p. 117 f. 15. Waddington (1957) pp. 180 seq. 16. Ibid, pp. 64-5. XII. EVOLUTION CTD: UNDOING AND RE-DOING 1. Huxley, (1964) pp. 12-13. 2. Ibid, p. 13. 3. Young (1950) p. 74. 4. de Beer (1940) p. 118. 5. Child (1915) p. 467. 5a. de Beer, op. cit. p. 119. 6. Ibid, p. 72. 7. Haldane (1932) p. 150.
7a. Garstang (1922). 8. Muller (1943) p. 109. 9. Krechevsky (1932). XIII. THE GLORY OF MAN 1. Needham, A.E. (1961). 2. See, e.g., Hamburger (1955). 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Lashley (1960) p. 239. 6. Lashley (1929). 6a. Kris (1964). 7. Bruner and Postman (1949). 8. Quoted by Hadamard (1949). 9. Humphrey (1951) p. 1. 10. Bartlett (1958). 11. Bruner and Postman (1949). 12. McKellar (1957). 13. Kubie (1958). XIV. THE GHOST IN THE MACHINE 1. Herrick (1961) p. 51. 2. v. Bertalanffy (1952) p. 128. 3. Herrick (1960 p. 47. 4. Schrödinger (1944) p. 72. 5. Wiener (1948) pp. 76-8. 6. Spencer (1862). 6a. Whyte (1949) p. 35. 6b. Schrödinger (1944) p. 88. 7. v. Bertalanffy (1952) p. 112. 8. Waddington (1961). 9. Ryle (1950). 10. Gellner (1959). 11. Smythies (1965). 12. Beloff (1962). 13. Gellner (1959). 14. Kneale (1962). 15. Penfield (1961). 16. Ibid. 17. Farber and Wilson, eds. (1961). 18. Eccles, ed. (1966). 19. Sherrington (1906). 20. Thorpe (1966B) p. 542. 21. Ibid, p. 495. 22. Sperry (1960) p. 306. 23. Adrian (1966) p. 245. 24. Koestler (1945) pp. :105-6. 25. MacKay (1966) p. 439. 26, Popper (1950). 27. Polanyi (1966). 28. MacKay (1966) pp. 252-3. 29, Koestler (1959) and (1964). 30. Quoted by Dubos (1950) p. 391 f. PART THREE: DISORDER XV. THE PREDICAMENT OF MAN 1. Freud (1920) pp. 3-5. 2. Schachtel (1963). 3. Berlyne (1960) p. 170. 4. Child (1924). 5. Arendt (1963). 6. Hogg (1961) pp. 44-5,. 7. Prescott (1964) pp. 59, 60, 61. 8. Ibid, p. 62. 9. Maslow (1962). 10. Jung (1928) p. 395. 11. Kretchmer (1934). 12. Oswald (1966) pp. 118-19. 13, Drever (1962). 14. Freud (1922). 15. v. Hayek (1966). 16. Koestler (1940) p. 119. 17. Koestler (1945) pp. 127-8. 18. The Times, London, 27.7.66. 19. Empson (1964). 20. Koestler (1945) p. 121. 20a. Koestler (1954). 21. Suzuki (1959) p. 33. 22. Koestler (1950) pp. 42-3 and (1954) p. 26. 23. The Times, London, 10.8.66. XVI. THE THREE BRAINS 1. Gaskell (1908) pp. 65-7. 2. Ibid, p. 66. 3. Wood Jones and Porteous (1929) pp. 27-8. 4. Ibid, p. 117. 5. Ibid, p. 103. 6. Ibid, p. 112. 7. Le Gros Clark (1961). 8. Wheeler (1928) p. 46. 9. Herrick (1961) pp. 398-9. 10. MacLean (1958) p. 613. 11. MacLean (1956) p. 351. 12. Mandler (1962) pp. 273-4 and 326. 13. Herrick (1961) p. 316. 14. Mandler (1962) p. 338. 15. MacLean (1962) p. 289. 16. MacLean (1964) p. 2. 17. MacLean (private communication). 18. MacLean (1958). 19. Ibid, p. 615. 20. Ibid, pp. 614-15. 21. Herrick (1961) p. 429. 22. MacLean (1958) p. 614. 23. MacLean (1964) p. 3. 24, MacLean (1956) p. 339. 25. MacLean (1956) p. 341 and (1958) p. 619. 26. MacLean (1956) p. 341. 27. MacLean (1964) pp. 10-11. 28. MacLean (1962) p. 296. 29. Miller et al. (1960) p. 206. 30. MacLean (private communication). 31. MacLean (1956) p. 348. 31a. Kluever (1911). 32. MacLean (1961) p. 1737. 33. MacLean (1958) p. 619. 34. MacLean (1962) p. 292. 35. Lorenz (1966) p. 120. 36. Allport (1924). 36a. Olds (196o). 36b. Hebb (1949). 36c. Pribram (1966). 37. Gellhorn (1963). 38. Ibid. 39. Cobb (1950). 40. MacLean (1962) p. 295. 41. Pribram (1966) p. 9. 42. Gellhorn (1957). XVII. A UNIQUE SPECIES 1. Huxley, J. (1963) pp. 7-2-8. 2. Koestler (1959) pp. 513-14. 3. Pyke (1961) p. 215. 4. Koestler (1964) p. 227. 5. Huxley J. (1964) p. 192. 6. Russell, W.M.S., in The Listener, London, 3.12.64 and 12.11.64. 7. Lorenz (1966) p. 19. 8. Russell, W.M.S. and C., in The Listener, London, 3.12.64. 9. Lorenz (1966) pp. 206-8. 10. Koestler (1966B). 11. Lorenz (1966) p. 215. 12. Lévy-Bruhl (1923) p. 63. 13. Berger (1967). XVIII. THE AGE OF CLIMAX 1. Platt (1966) pp. 195, 196 and 200. 2. de Beer (1966). 3. National Research Council Report (1962). 4. Harkavy (1964). 5. Ibid, p. 8. 6. Eastman (1965). 7. Morris (1966). 8. Time, New York, 29.1.65. 9. v. Bertalanffy (1956). 10. Time, New York, 25.9.64. 11. Lindquist (1966). 12. Time, New York, 24.9.65. 13. Platt (1966) p. 192. 14. Lorenz (1966) p. 205. 15. MacLean (1961) pp. 1738-9. 16. Hydén (1961). 17. Saunders (1961) p. xi f. 18. Huxley, A. (1961). APPENDIX II. ON NOT FLOGGING DEAD HORSES 1. Nott (1964). 2. Miller (1964B). 3. Miller et al. (1960). 4, v. Bertalanffy (1967). WORKS MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK The dates given refer to the editions that I have consulted. Adrian, E. D., in Brain and Conscious Experience. See Eccles, J.C., ed., 1966. Allport, F. H., Social Psychology. New York, 1924. Arendt, H., Eichmann in Jerusalem. London, 1963. Baerends, G.P., 'Fortpflanzungsverhalten und Orientierung der Grabwespe' in Ammophila campestris. Jur. Tijd. voor Entom. 84, 71-275, 1941. Bartlett, F., Thinking. London, 1958. de Beer, G., Embryos and Ancestors. Oxford, 1940. de Beer, G., in New Scientist. London, 17.2.66. Beloff, J., Existence of Mind. London, 1962. Berger, F.M., in Am. Scientist, 55, 1, March 1967. Berlyne, D.E., Conflict, Arousal and Curiosity. New York, 1960. v. Bertalanffy, L., Problems of Life. New York, 1952. v. Bertalanffy, L., in The Scientific Monthly, January 1956. v. Bertalanffy, L., Psychology in the Modern World. Heinz Werner Memorial Lectures. New York, 1967 (in press). Bichat, X., Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort. Paris, 1800. Bichat, X., Anatomie Générale. Paris, 1801. Bonner, J., The Molecular Biology of Development. Oxford, 1965. Brain and Conscious Experience. See Eccles, J.C., ed., 1966. Brain and Mind. See Smythies, J.R., ed., 1965. Brown, R., Social Psychology. Glencoe, Ill., 1965. Bruner, J.S. and Posman, L., in J. of Personality, XVIII, 1949. Burt, C., in B. J. of Psychol., 53, 3, 1962. Calvin, A.D., ed., Psychology. Boston, Mass., 1961. Cannon, W.B., The Wisdom of the Body. New York, 1939. Child, C.M., Physiological Foundations of Behaviour. New York, 1924. Chomsky, N., 'A Review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behaviour' in Language 35, No. 1, 26-58, 1959. Clark, W.E. Le Gros, in The Advancement of Science. London, September, 1961. Clayton, R.M., in Penguin Science Survey 1949B. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1964. Cobb, S., Emotions and Clinical Medicine. New York, 1950. Coghill, G.E., Anatomy and the Problem of Behaviour. Cambridge, 1929. Control of the Mind. See Farber, S.M., and Wilson R.H.L., eds., New York, 1961. Cooper, F.S., See Liberman et al., 1965. Craik, K.J.W., The Nature of Explanation. Cambridge, 1943. Darwin, C.R., The Origin of Species. London, 1873 (6th ed.). Drever's A Dictionary of Psychology. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1962. Dubos, R.J., Louis Pasteur. Boston, Mass., 1950. Dunbar, H.F., Emotions and Bodily Changes. New York, 1946. Eastman, N.J., in Fertility and Sterility, Vol. 15, No. 5, September-October 1965, reprinted by the Ford Foundation, 1965. Eccles, J.C., ed., Brain and Conscious Experience. New York, 1966. Empson, W., 'The Abominable Fancy' in New Statesman. London, 21.8.64. Ewer, R.F., 'Natural Selection and Neoteny' in Acta Biotheoretica. Leiden, 1960. Farber, S.M. and Wilson, R.H.L., eds., Control of the Mind. New York, 1961. Ford, E.B. See Huxley, J., 1954. Freud, Sigmund, Jenseits des Lustprinzips, 1920. Freud, Sigmund, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 1922. Freud, Sigmund, Gesammelte Werke, Vols. I-XVIII. London, 1940-52. Galanter, E. See Miller, G.A., 1960. Garstang, W., 'The Theory of Recapitulation: A Critical Restatement of the Biogenetic Law' in J. Linnean Soc. London, Zoology, 35, 81, 1922. Garstang, W., 'The Morphology of the Tunicata, and its Bearings on the Phylogeny of the Chordata' in Quarterly J. Microscopical Sci., 72, 51, 1928. Gaskell, W.H., The Origin of Vertebrates, 1908. Gellhorn, E., Autonomic Imbalance and the Hypothalamus. Minneapolis, 1957. Gellhorn, E. and Loofbourrow, G.N., Emotions and Emotional Disorders. New York, 1963. Gellhorn, E., Principles of Autonomic-Somatic Integrations. Minneapolis, 1967. Gellner, E., Words and Things. London, 1959. Goethe, Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen. Gotha, 1790. Goethe, Sämtliche Werke, Vol. XIV, Editor's Preface. Stuttgart, 1872. Gorini, L., in Scientific American, April 1966. Gregory, R.L., Eye and Brain. London, 1966. Hadamard, J., The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field. Princeton, 1949. Haldane, J.B.S., The Causes of Evolution. London, 1932. Hamburger, V., article on 'Regeneration' in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1955 ed. Hardy, A.C., 'Escape from Specialisation' in Huxley, Hardy and Ford, eds., 1954. Hardy, A.C., The Living Stream. London, 1965. Hardy, A.C., The Divine Flame. London, 1966. Harkavy, O., 'Economic Problems of Population Growth.' New York: The Ford Foundation, 1964. Harlow, H.F., in Psychol. Rev., 60, 23-32, 1953. v. Hayek, F.A., 'The Evolution of Systems of Rules of Conduct' in Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics. London, 1967 (in Press). Hebb, D.O., Organisation of Behaviour. New York, 1949. Herrick, C.J., . New York, 1961. Hilgard, E.R., Introduction to Psychology. London, 1957. 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tebrates. Oxford, 1950. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to quote from various works: The Macmillan Co., New York (Science and Human Behaviour, by B.F. Skinner, © 1953 by The Macmillan Co.); Allyn & Bacon, Boston (Psychology, ed. A.D. Calvin, © 1961 by Allyn & Bacon); Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth ('Differentiation', by R.M. Clayton in Penguin Science Survey 1964B); Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London, and Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., New York (Life: An Introduction to Biology, by G.G. Simpson, C.S. Pittendrigh and L.H. Tiffany, © 1957 by Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., and Routledge & Kegan Paul); The Listener, London ('How Do Adaptations Occur?', by C.H. Waddington); Chatto & Windus, London (Man in the Modern World, by J. Huxley); Cambridge Univ. Press (On Growth and Form, by D.W. Thompson); Edward Arnold Ltd., London (The Matrix of the Mind, by F. Wood Jones and S.D. Porteus); Robert Hale Ltd., London (Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice, by G. Hogg); Methuen & Co. Ltd., London (On Aggression, by K.L. Lorenz, tr. M. Latzke); The Listener, London ('The Wild Ones' and 'The Affluent Crowd', by W.M.S. Russell); McGraw Hill, New York (J.B. de C.M. Saunders in Control of the Mind). INDEX Abominable Fancy, 259 Abraham, 239, 311 Abstract thinking, in language, 31 Abstractive memory, 84-6, 345 Act of Creation, The, ix, xii, 13, 18, 28 n, 56 n, 80 n, 93 n, 153 n, 169n, 178n, 18on, 182, 185 n, 295, 350, 351 Action patterns, fixed, 343 Active speech, 41 Adaptations, 152 Adaptive radiation, 161 Adrian, E.D., 213 After Many a Summer, 167 n Age of Enlightenment, 238, 256, 258 Age of Reason, 256 Aggression, 230-3, 252, 265, 266, 285, 292, 308 Aggressive-defensive emotions, 343 AH reaction, 188-9, 190, 193, 242 AHA reaction, 184-5, 193 Ahrendt, Hannah, 234 Alice in Wonderland, 39 Ali's computer, 297-8 Allport, F.H., 293 Altamira caves, 192 Amber, 184 Amphibians, 128 ancestry of, 166 self-repair in, 173-4 Anamorphosis, 200 Anatomie Générale, 274 Anger, identification and, 245 Animals improvisation by, 106-7 instinctive behaviour, 105 language and, 19 Anna Karenina, 245, 263 n Ape, comparison with man, 166 Ape embryo, resemblance to man, 166 Arborisation, 345-6 Archetypes, 137, 138 Arrchicortex, 279, 280 Archimedes, 300 Archives of General Psychiatry, 336 n Aristarchus, 179 Aristotle, 200, 274, 301, 350 Art emotion and, 189-92 paedomorphosis and, 169 Arthropods, brain development of, 268 Artistic inspiration, 195 Artists, 194-5 Asian history, 260 Association, mental, 182-4 Associative contexts, 182 Asymptotic approach, 35 Atomic holons, 62 Auditory holons, 80 Auditory memory, 89 Automatised routines, 207, 208 Autonomic nervous system, 274, 275, 292, 293 control of by limbic brain, 293 emotion and, 294 Autonomous complexes, 232 Awareness cerebral cortex and, 282 hierarchic, 246-7 seat of, 282 Awareness of specific activity, 206 Aztecs, 236, 237, 238, 258 Baehrends, G.P., 106 Baird, James, 249 Balance, law of, 140-2 Baldwin, M., 153,163 Baldwin effect, 159 Bartlett, F., 78, 185 n Basal ganglia, 278 "Beach at Ocean View, The," 210 n de Beer, Sir Gavin, 164, 165, 166, 314, 316 Beethoven, L., 263 n Behaviour influence of environment on, 110-11 instinctive, 344 in animals, 105 Behaviour of Organisms, The, 9 Behavioural holons, habits and, 76 Behaviourism, 7, 13, 96, 162, 17), 188, 194, 202, ~-26, 295, 349-52 approach to language, 19 creativity and, 13, 14 terminology of, 12 the rise of, 5-9 Beliefs irrational, 289 structure of, 254-7 Believing, as knowing, 289 Beloff, John, 202 n Benzedrine, 293, 294 Berger, F.M., 311 n Bergson, Henri, 200, 206 Berlyne, D. E., 2a6 von Bertalanffy, Ludwig, xii, 13 n, 61, 67, 100, 109, 147, 198, 200, 320, 352 Bichat, Xavier, 274, 275 Binet-Muller test, 91 Biocoenosis, 66 Biology archetypes in, 137-9 orthodox doctrines, x self-repair in, 173-9 Biological evolution, 3 paedomorphosis and, 169 Biological holons, 341 Birds, improvisation by, 107 Birth control, Catholic Church and, 260 Bisociation, 181, 182-4 Bizet, 263 n Blood-suckers, 270 Bolk, L., 166 Bonner, James, 125, 126 Brain death and, 311 evolution of, 278-81 experiments on, 203-4 human, 272-4 lack of co-ordination in, 273 of invertebrates, 268-70 of marsupials, 270-2 simian and man compared, 166 slowness of man to actualise potentials of, 299 the 'unsolicited gift', 297-8 'tumorous overgrowth', 272-4 Brain and Conscious Experience, 204 Brain and Mind, 205 Brain-making, mistakes in, 267-72 Brain-stem, 278 Brains, the three, 277-81 Brave New World, 335 Breakdown of behaviour, 111 Broca, P., 280, 281 Brown, L.R., 314 Brown, Roger, 30 n Bruner, Jerome, 179, 185 n Buddhists, militant, 260 Buffon, Comte de, 137 Bun, Sir Cyril, 6 Calendar, the new, 322-7 Caligula, 234 Cannibalism, 236, 237, 238 Cannon, Walter B., 98, 276 Cannon-Bard theory, 276 Car driving, 206, 208 Carmen, 263 n Carrell, A., 64 Cartesian dualism, 204, 205 Caruso, 87 Cassandra, 313 Castration complex, 263, 264 Catholic Church, 243 birth control and, 260 Cavell, Nurse Edith, 246 Cells, 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125 Cell-tissue, genetic potential of, 120 Centipede, paradox of the, 109, 110 Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences, xi Centrosomes, 63 Cerebral cortex, awareness and the, 282 Cerebral hemispheres, 279 Cerebro-spinal nervous system, 274, 275 Cézanne, 194, 196 Chained responses, 19-23 Characteristics, acquired, 116, 117 Charcot, J.M., 249 Chardin, Tellhard de, 240 Chess, thinking and, 183 Child, C.M., 68, 165, 231 n, 347 Children, acquisition of language by, 28-32 China population growth, 258, 315 Chlorpromazine, 293, 294 Chomsky, N., 13, 30, 31 n, 36 Chosen race, 255 Christianity, 256 Chromosomes, 64, 122 heredity and, 65 City of God, 301 Clark, Colin, 315 Clark, Professor Le Gros, 272 Classes, élite, 255 Classificatory hierarchies, 61 Classless society, 256 Clinical psychoses, 232 Closed systems, 263, 264, 265, 289 Cobb, S., 294 Coghill, G.E., 96, 153 Cognitive holons, 182 Cognitive systems, 289, 290 Collective hysteria, 248 Comic discovery, defined, 186 Comic inventiveness, 195 Commensualism, 66 Communism, 256, 257, 261-2 Communist purges, 234 Complexes, autonomous, 232 Compound eye, 149 Concept of Mind, The, 202 Consciousness, 208, 209, 347 behaviourists and, 15 negative definition of, 207 seat of, 282 states of, 205, 206 Constable, John, 82, 86-7 Contact lenses, 177 Contraceptives, 330 Control of the Mind, 204 Copernicus, 179, 255 Cortex, 279 in evolution, 279 sub-divisions of, 279 Craik, K.J.W., 212 n Creative activity, 194, 195-6 Creativity, 180 194-6, 230-1, 288 Behaviourism and, 13, 14 of human mind, ix paedomorphosis, 181 three domains of, 195 Creeds, 255 Critique of Pure Reason, 310 Cro Magnon man, 298 Crowd mentality, 250-2 Crystals, 62 n Cybernetics, 97, 99, 199 Danzig, 326 Darlington, W., 132 n Darwin, Charles, 137, 153 Darwinians, 260 Davies, Kingsley, 315 Daydreaming, 182 De Anima, 274 Death instinct, ix Delusional streak, 265-6, 267 schizophysiology and, 289 Depth-psychology, 35 De-specialisation of race, 164 Determination, 125 embryological, 119-20, 125 Developmental hierarchies, 61,125, 126 Developmental homeostasis, 142 Differentiation, 124 Dionysian cult, 229 Disorder, 347, 348 pattern of in history, 259 Dissectibility of hierarchies, 65, 342 Dividuals, 67, 68 Divine Flame, The, 260 n Docility, 125 Docility of embryonic tissue, 119 Dominant genes, 123 Donne, John, 117, 188, 230, 312 Doppelgängers, the, 143-6 Double-think, 260-5 Drever's Dictionary of Psychology, 250 Drive reduction, 226 Drives limbic system and, 286 sexual, 291-2 Dualism, 210 Dunbar, H.F., 68 Dürer, A., 196 Dynamic equilibrium, 347 Eccles, Sir John, 209 n Echinoderms, 162, 163 Ectoderm, 118, 119, 120 Edison, T., 314 Eichmann, Adolph, 234 Eidetic images, 90 Einstein, A., 180, 184, 200, 264 Elwin, Dr Verrier, 235 Embryo eye-bud of, 119, 131 morphogenesis of, 117-21 resemblance of ape to man, 166 Embryonic development, 68-9, 72, 126 Embryonic tissue determination of, 119-20 docility of, 119 Emergency reactions, 276 Emotion ancient brain and, 281-5 and irrational beliefs, 289 and laughter, 187-8 art and, 189-92 autonomic nervous system and, 294 novelists and, 287-8 physiology of, 274-7 three dimensions of, 226-3o two basic categories of, 294 Emotional commitment, a59, 264 Emotions aggressive-defensive, 292 classification of, 227 James-Lange theory of, 275, 276 overheated drives, 276 Papez-Maclean theory of, 277 et seq. participatory, 293 preparatory, 293 self-assertive, 218 self-transcending, 218, 292 vicarious, 217 Encounter, 11 n Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14 Entropy, 199 negative, 199 Environment hierarchy of, 114, 346 influence on behaviour, 110-11 interpretation of, 102-3 man and, 3 Epigenetic landscape, 125 Epilepsy and the limbic system, 284 Equilibrium, dynamic, 347 Erasmus of Rotterdam, 301 Ergotropic system, 293 Ethnic tensions, 315 Euphony, 194 European Common Market, 321 Evolution, ix, x, 127-50 biological, 3 by paedomorphosis,
161-71 explosive, 173 homology and, 135-9 internal selection, 130-3 Law of, 200 mental, 3 of brain, 178-81 of ideas, 168, 169 progress by initiative, 151-60 random mutation, 127, 130 retracing of steps in, 166-9 sex a late-comer in, 292 strategy of, 267 superimposition of new on old brain, 281 the law of balance and, 140-2 Evolution of Human Nature, The, 273 Evolutionary holons, stability of, 140 Evolutionary homeostasis, 142 Evolutionary Humanists, 240 Evolutionary maze, 164 Evolutionary mistakes, 268 Evolutionist doctrines, 116 Ewer, R.F., 158 Exploratory drives, 153 Explosive evolution, 273 Extra-sensory perception, 219 Eye, compound, 149 Eye-bud of embryo, 131 Eye-cup of embryo, 119 Eye lenses, 149 Eysenck, H.J., 350 Fainting, infectious, 247 Faith emotional commitment, 259 reason and, 159; 260 Fall, doctrine of the, ix Faria, Lima da, 131 Farrar, Dean, 259 Fascism, 157, 258, 259 Faust, 139 n Feedbacks, 42, 97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 161, 207, 345 ff Fetish, 255 Filters, perceptual, 77-83, 344 Fish amphibian ancestry, 166 improvisation by, 107 Flatworm, 173, 212-13 Fly, eyeless, 133-5 Foraminifera, 205 n Ford Foundation, 315 Frames of reference, 182, 194 Free will, problem of, 97, 208-21, 346-7 French Revolution, 250, 256, 323 Freud, S., 5, 6, 35, 58, 181, 191, 213, 226, 232, 242, 248, 250, 286, 290 Freudian school, as closed system of thought, 263 Fruit fly, 133 mutations of, 130 Fuchs, Klaus, 332 Functional hierarchies, 59 Functional holons, 342, 343 Fundamentalists, 260 Galileo, 178, 179, 182, 184, 186, 255, 260 Ganglionic mass, 268 Garstang, W., 163,164, 167, 178 Gaskell, W.H., 268 Gellhorn, E., 293 Gellner, E., 202 Gene-complex, 122-3, 174, 344 hierarchic order of, 124 Genetic blueprint, 121 Genetic codes, 72-3, 74 Genetic controls, 123 Genetic keyboard, 122-6 Genetics, atomism, 123, 124 Genome, see Gene-complex Gerontomorphosis, 165, 167 Gestalt-constancy, 341 Gestalt psychology, 17, 49, 93, 94, 185 Giant panda, 127-8, 130-1 Gill-breathing, 166 Goddess of Reason, 256 Goethe, 139, 142, 149 Goitre, prevention of, 328-9 Goodyear, Charles, 330 Gösring, H., 258 Gould, D., 336 n Gozzi, Carlo, 149 Gregory, R.L., 79 Group mentality, 247, 254, 255 Group mind as a holon, 265-6 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 250 Gutenberg, 185 Habits, 76, 104-12 acquired, 343 as functional holons, 207 mechanisation of, 108-10 Hadamard, Jacques, 180 HAHA reaction, 185, 186-7, 193 emotional factor in, 187-8 Haldane, J.B.S., 167 Hamburger, V., 174 Hardy, Sir Alister, x, xii, 137, 147, 153, 154, 155, 260 n Harlow, H.F., 9 Harris, H., 69 Harvey, W., 194 Haskin's Laboratories, 25, 26 Hatha Yoga, 218 von Hayek, F.A., 252 n Hayes, Alfred, 210 Head-hunting, 309 "Heaven and Hell," 335 Hebb, D.O., 293 Hedonic tone, 226, 294 defined, 227 Hegel, 326 Heisenberg, Werner, 17, 216 n Herder, 138 Herrick, Judson, 16, 159, 197, 198, 273, 277, 282, 343 Hess, W.R., 293 Hidden persuaders, 182 Hierarchic awareness, 246-7 Hierarchical systems, general properties of, 341-8 Hierarchies correlation of perceptual and motor, 101 decomposable, 52 n depth and span, 50 diagrammatic representation of, 59-61 dissectibility of, 342 evolution of, 47 inorganic, 61-3 interlocking, 5I, 87, 94, 95, 96 Janus effect, 48 many-levelled, 208, 209 and memory, 87 motor, 71 of environment, 346 of perceptual skills, 77-9 open-ended, 104, 218-21 pattern-regulation, 80 perceptual, 345 polarity in, 225 social, 50-5, 232, 344 symbolic, 61 Hingston, R.W.G., 106 Hiroshima, 311, 323 Hitler, Adolf, 257, 264 Hogarth, 187 Hogg, G., 236 Holism psychology, 49 Holon defined, 48, 341 the group mind as a, 265-6 Holons, 45-58, 125, 341 atomic, 62 auditory, 80 cognitive, 182 cohesion, 53 crowd, 251-2 degrees of freedom in, 105 evolutionary, 171 functional, 76, 207, 342, 343 habits and behavioural, 76 hierarchy of, 102-3 in nest building, 74 in the motor hierarchy, 71 mental, 131, 131 musical, 93 rules and strategies of, 58, 342 self-regulating, 97, 121 social, 329 social, 50-5, 232-3, 246-7, 329, 344, 348 Holy Communion, 229 Homeorhesis, 344 Homeostasis, 98, 99 developmental, 121, 142 evolutionary, 142 kinetic, 208, 345 Homologous organs, 137 Homology, 135-9 Honey-bee, 107 Hook, Sidney, 350 Hull, C.L., 6, 10, 226 Human mind creativity of, ix pathology of, ix Human nature, tampering with, 327-30 Human sacrifice, 235, 236, 237 Humanists, Evolutionary, 240 Humanity, crisis of, 313-39 Humphrey, G., 182 Hunger, 228-9 Hunter, W.S., 14 Hunters, 305-8 Huxley, Aldous, 167, 335 Huxley, Sir Julian, 115, 130 n, 161, 297, 302, 308, 309 Hyden, Holger, xii, 333 Hypnosis, induction and, 147-53 Hypnotic state, 248 Hypnotism, 248, 249 Hypothalamus, 275, 178 temperature control and the, 98 Ideas, paedomorphosis and, 168 Ideational content of emotion, 274 Idée fixe, 231, 265, 347 Identification, 243, 246, 251, 295, 348 depersonalisation and, 248 integration and, 241-3 mental, 254 perils of, 243-6 Ideological wars, 238 Ideologies, 265 Improvisation, 106-7 India, population growth in, 314, 315 Individualism, 343 Inducer, in genetics, 122 Induction and hypnosis, 247-53 mutual, 25I Infantile sexuality, 285-6 Inoculation, 328 Inorganic systems, 61-3 Input hierarchy, 83, 344 Insect societies, 67 Insects behaviour of social, 270 improvisation by, 106-7 possible ancestors, 166 Instinct in social insects, 270 reptilian brain and, 279 Instinct-drive, 228 Instinctive activities, hierarchies of subskills, 76 Instinctive behaviour, 344 in animals, 105 Internal Factors in Evolution, 147 n Integration and identification, 241-3 of behaviour, functional holon and, 76 Integrative tendency, 56, 119, 189, 190, 201, 230, 233, 242, 243, 246, 247, 266, 292, 343, 347 Interlacing hierarchies, 95 Interlocking hierarchies, 5z, 87, 94, 95, 96 Introduction to Biology, An, 136 Introspective psychology, 32 Invertebrates, nerve chain of, 268 Inverting spectacles, 176-7 Isaiah, 313 Jackson, Hughlin, 284 James, William, 15, 38, 69, 146, 260 n, 275 James-Lange theory of emotions, 275, 276 Janus effect, 48, 34I Japan, population, 315 Jenkins, James, 29, 49, 88 Jeremiah, 313 Johns Hopkins University, 5 Jones, Dr B., 185 n Jones, Wood, 270, 271 Jonson, Ben, 48, 103 Jung, C.G., 5, 35, 240, 243 Kafka, Franz, 268 Kangaroo, 143 Kant, E., 310 Kepler, Johannes, 179, 184, 186, 255 Khasis, the, 235-6 Kidnapped, 84 Kinesthetic feedback, 99 Kinetic homeostasis, 99, 208, 345 Kluever, H., 90, 288 Kneale, W., 202 n Knowledge evolution of, 168 growth of specialised, 317-18 Koala bear, 161-2, 172, 271-2 Kottenhoff, H., 79 Krechevsky, I., 171 Kretschmer, E., 249 Kris, Ernest, 177 Kuhn, Thomas, 116 n Lamarck, 137, 155 n Lamarckism, 116 Language abstract thinking in, 31 ambiguity of, 33-6 chain theory, 32 curse of, 308-10 hierarchic approach to, 34 hierarchic organisation of, 24 man and, 19 the tree of, 23-44 Lashley, K.S., 27, 31, 32, 33, 37, 81, 175, 207, 276 Laughter, 189, 190 emotion and, 187-8 infectious, 247 Learning by rote, 92-4 cortex and, 279 Learning habits, 108-10 Least action, 108 Le Bon, 250 Leibnitz, 200 Lenin, 258, 313 Lenses contact, 177 eye, 149 Lévy-Bruhl, L., 311 Liberman, Professor Alvin, xii, 25 Lie-detector, 290 Life, integrative powers of, 66-70 Light of Grace, 260 Light of Reason, 259 Limbic system, 280-93 characteristics of, 282-3 dissonance with neocortex, 332 and epilepsy, 284 excision of parts in monkey, 286 influence on use of weapons, 307 integrative centre for drives and perceptions, 286 of man, 278 self-preservation in, 29o-I Lindauer, 107 Linnaean Society, 153 Lister, 314 Literary Gazette (China), 263 n Literature, paedomorphosis and, 169 'Little brains', 275 Lodestones, 184 Long-tailed tit, 74 Lorenz, Konrad, xi, 74, 100, 243, 291, 306, 307, 309, 331, 344 Lotus and the Robot, The, 218 n Louis XV, 185, 186 L.S.D., 241 Lung-breathing fish, 166 Machine, the ghost in the, 202 Machine-processes, 207 MacKay, Professor, 215, 216, 219 McKellar, P., 185 n MacLean, Dr Paul, xii, 273, 277, 278, 279, 282, 284, 287, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294, 332 McNeill, D., 29, 30 n Mandler, G., 276, 277 Manual skills, hierarchy of, 72 Mao Tse-Tung, President, 258 Mark Anthony, 253 Marlow, C., 242 Marsupials, 143-6, 270-2 Marxism, 260 Mass hypnosis, 248 Masses, psychology of the, 247 Master race, 255 Mathematicians, working methods of, 180 Matrices, cognitive, 182, 193, 194, 263 Mead, Margaret, 309, 310 Mechanical activity, 207 Mechanised patterns of holons, 346 Mechanisms, innate releasive, 344 Mechanistic approach, 61-2 Medawar, Sir Peter, 129 Medulla of brain, 278 Memory abstractive, 84-6, 345 emotional reactions and, 89 two types of, 88-90 Memory-formation, 85, 88, 89 Mendelian genetics, 123 Mental evolution, 3 Mental hierarchy, re-forming of, 195 Mental holons, 231, 232 Mental identification, 254 Mentality, split, 259 Mesocortex, 279, 280 Mesmerism, 249 Mesozoic Age, 161 Metalanguage, 35 Metamorphosis, 191 n Metamorphosis of Plants, 138 Metre, 194 Micro-hierarchy, gene-complex, self-regulating, 134 Miller, G.A., 42, 101 n, 344, 346, 350 M
illipede, ancestral insect, 166 Mind-body problem, 203 et seq. Mind-processes, 207 Mitochondria, 63 genetic apparatus of, 65 Mobs, 254, 255 Moissi, Alexander, 88 Monkey and typewriter, 117, 123, 170 Montague, J.F., 311 n Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, 328 Morgan, Lloyd, 153 Morphemes, 26 Morphogenesis, 124 hierarchic pattern of, 117-18 Morris, Ian, 317 Morse telegraphy, 28 Motion, Third Law of, 63 Motivational drives, 290-1 Motor hierarchy, correlation with perceptual, 101 Movements, 255 Mozart, 188 Muller, H.J., 152, 170 Musical holons, 93 Mutations co-ordination of acceptable, 132 defined, 115 elimination of harmful, 132 interdependent, and evolution, 128-30 Mutual induction, 248, 251 Mutualism, 66 Nationalism, 57, 343 Nature of Explanation, The, 212 n Nazis, 258 Needham, J., 126, 173 Neocortex, 279, 280, 281 dissonance with limbic system, 332 effect of limbic brain on, 289-90 Neo-Darwinism, 116 Neo-mammalian organisation of brain, 278 Neoteny, 164, 165 Nervous system of man, 274 reorganisation of behaviour, 175 Nest-building, 73-6 New Scientist, 336 n New Yorker, 187, 188 Newton, Isaac, 63,178-9, 184, 255, 259 Nineteen Eighty-four, 245 Nott, Kathleen, 350 Novelists and emotion, 287-8 Nuclear devices, 325 Nymphomaniac case, 284 Obsessions, 265 Oersted, H.C., 184 Olds, J., 293 On Aggression, xi On Growth and Form, 140 Ontogeny, 115-26, 167, 342, 343, 344 Open-ended hierarchy of language, 33 Open system, 198 Operant conditioning, 8 Organelles, 63-70 Organisms activeness of, 198 architecture of, 95 as holons, 67-9 power to build up systems, 199 Organs, homologous, 137 Origin of Vertebrates, The, 268 Original sin, 267 Originality, origins of, 105-7 Orwell, George, 245, 262 Oswald, I., 249 Output hierarchies, 83, 344, 345 Over-specialisation, 161 a dead end, 169 Owen, Richard, 139 Oxford Dictionary, 265 n Paedomorphosis, 163-71 diagram of evolution by, 167-8 Paleocene Age, 161 Paleo-mammalian organisation of brain, 278 Panda, Giant, 127-8, 130-1 Papez-MacLean theory of emotions, 277, 283, 296 Paranoiacs, 232 Paranoid schizophrenia, 259 n Paranoid streak, 258, 259, 327, 336 Parasympathetic system, 292-5 Parental love, 228 Participatory emotions, 293 Pasteur, L., 156, 220, 314, 330 Pathology of human mind, ix Patriotic wars, 238 Patriotism, 57 Pattern-recognition, 79 Pavlov, I.P., 6, 10, 16, 350 Pavlov's dogs, 93 Penfield, Wilder, 203, 204, 208, 212 Pep pills, 293 Perception, reorganisation of, 176-7 Perceptiveness, limbic system and, 286 Perceptual hierarchies, 345 correlation with motor, 101 Perceptual skills, 78 Personal responsibility, suspension of, 251 Pflüger, 175 Philosophic Anatomique, 137 Phonemes, 25, 48 ambiguity of, 33 Phrase habit, 28 Phrases, 48 Phylogenesis, building-up tendency in, 199 Phylogenetic self-repair, 174 Phylogeny, 127, 167, 344 Physics, ideas about time, 201 Physiology of emotion, 274-7 Piaget, Jean, 191, 213 Pigeons, behaviourism and, 8, 9, 10, 14, 22 Pinhole eye, 149 Plato, 192 Platt, J.R., 313, 325 Pleasure principle, 290 Poets, 195 Poetic imagery, 194 Poetry, 288 Poincaré, Henri, 184 n Polanyi, Michael, 217 n Political movements, 255 Politicians, 264-5 Pollock, M.R., 69 Polygeny, 123 Polyps, 173 Pope, Alexander, 235 Popper, Sir Karl, 36, 217 n Population, growth of, 314-15 Pop-Zen, 262 Porcupine fish, 140 Potentials, polarity of, 225 Power, growth of, 318-19 Pre-natal skills, 126 Preparatory emotions, 293 Prescott, W.H., 237 Preservation of species, 291, 292 Pribram, Karl, xii, 293, 344, 346 Primates, 302-5 Principia, 259 Principles of Psychology, 21 Process hierarchies, 61 Protoplasmic consciousness, 205 Proust, M., 89 Pseudo-reasoning, 260 Psycholinguists, 24 Psychology academic, 5 behaviourism and, 5 Gestalt, 17, 49, 185 habit and, 110 holism, 49 introspective, 33 of the masses, 247 Psycho-motor epilepsy, 284 Psychopharmacology, 335, 336 Psychoses, clinical, 232 Psychosymbiotic awareness, 219 Psychotherapy, purpose of regression in, 177 Ptolemy, 179, 300 Purpose, 170 Purposiveness, 152 de Puysegur, Marquis Chastenay, 249 n Pyke, M., 301 Pythagoras, 184 Pythagoreans, 300 Rabies, and the limbic system, 283 Race, de-specialisation of, 164 Racial senescence, 165 Racial tensions, 325 Radiation, adaptive, 161 Rage, 294 Randal, J., 311 n Random mutations, 115, 117 Rationalist doctrines, 258 Ratomorphism, philosophy of, 15, 19 Rats, behaviourism and, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15-18, 19, 22, 162-3, 171, 175-6, 302 Rawlinson, 187 Reaction AH, 188-9, 190, 193 AHA, 193 HAHA, 184-7, 193 Reactions, emergency, 276 Reality principle, 290 Reason, as 'bride' of faith, 256, 260 Reasoning, emotional bias and, 264 Recall, 87 visual, 91 Recessive genes, 123, 133 Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort, 274 Reflexes, 15, 16, 96, 123 Reformist heresy, 257 Regeneration, 173, 348 Regenerative skills, 173 Regulation channels, 346 Rejuvenation of race, 164, 165 Releasers, 74 Repressor, in genetics, 122 Reptiles, 128 ancestry of, 166 Reptilian brain, 278, 279 Responsibility, personal, 214 Reticular system, 278 Reticulation, 345-6 Revival of Learning, 259 Revolutionary Justice, 257 Rhinencephalon, 283 n Rhyme, 194 Rhythm, 194 Ribosomes, 63 Rituals, 229 compulsive, 107 Roberts, Morley, 273 Robespierre, 256 Rohrschach blot, 103 Rote, learning by, 92-4 Routines, automatised, 207, 208 Rule-governed behaviour, 54 Russell, E.S., 134 Russell, W.M.S., 303, 306 Ryle, Professor Gilbert, 202 Sacrifice human, 235, 236, 237 ritual of, 235-8 Sager, Ruth, 66 St Augustine, 301, 313 St Hilaire, G., 137, 142 St John, 313 St Thomas Aquinas, 259, 301 Salamander, regeneration in, 173-4 Saunders, Dean, 334, 336 Scanners, 77, 81, 83, 86, 344-5 Schachtel, E.G., 191 n, 226 n Schizophrenia, defined, 259 n Schizophysiology, 284-7 consequences of, 288 cure for, 327, 330-9 Schoolmen, 262 Schrödinger, Erwin, 199, 200, 343 Schweitzer, Albert, 339 Science paedomorphosis and, 169 the Unconscious and, 179-81 Science and Human Behaviour, 7, 9, 13, 14 Scientific American, 350 Scientific discovery, 186, 194, 195 Scientific Revolution, the, 238 Scientific Socialism, 258 Sea cucumber, 163 Seat of consciousness, 282 Selection, internal, 130-3 Self-assertive tendencies, 120, 189, 227, 228, 229, 230, 233, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 251, 266, 291, 294, 343 functional holon and, 76 in holons, 56 Self-regulating social holons, 329 Self-regulation, 97, 98, 121 Self-preservation, limbic system and, 291-1 Self-realisation, self-repair and, 177-9 Self-repair and self-realisation, 177-9 biological, 173-9 mental, 195 phylogenetic, 174 regresslye and progressive phases, 174 Self-transcendence, 219, 230, 237, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 251, 253, 256, 259, 260, 265, 266, 292, 294, 295 infantile form of, 243 Self-transcending emotions, 189, 190, 191, 218, 234, 343 Semmelweiss, D., 314 Semon, Richard, 91 Sensations, visceral, 274 Sense-modality, 345 Sensory feedbacks, 345 Sensory-motor nervous system, 77 interlocking hierarchies of, 96 skills and habits, 96-7, 100 Sensory-motor routines, 96-7, 345 Serial view, of mind-body problem, 208-12 Servetius, 260 Sexual drive, 226, 291-2 Sexual instinct, integrative tendency of, 292 Sexual love, 228 Sexuality infantile, 285-6 limbic system and, 286 Shakespeare, 253, 263 n Sherrington, Sir Charles, 16, 204 Sign-releasers, 74 Simon, H.A., 45, 47, 50, 52 n, 62, 92 n, 342 Simpson, G.G., 145, 152 Sinnott, E.W., 152 Skills, 343 acquisition of, 206-8 as functional holons, 207 automatisation of, 346 learnt, 344 verbal, 344 Skinner, B.F., 6, 7, 9, 1o, 11, 13, 14, 17, 21, 22, 41, 75, 350 Skinner boxes, 8, 74 Skinner's pigeons, 93 Skull evolutionary aspects of, 141-2 simian and man compared, 166 Smythies, J.R., 205 n, 222 n Social group, aggression and the, 308 Social hierarchies, 344 Social hierarchy, integration in a, 246 Social holons, 50-5, 232-3,246-7, 265, 266, 34I, 344, 348 Social infection, 248 Social insects, 67 behaviour, 270 Social organisation, hierarchy of, 50-5 Socialism, 257 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Dead Horses, 349 Sociologists, war and, 252 Solomon, 194 Somnambulism, 249 Song of Songs, 194 Soviet Government, 349 Soviet myths, 257, 258 Soviet Union, in Stalin regime, 261-2 Span, 50, 342 Specialisation, 120 continuation of, 165 escape from, 163-5 Species, death of the, 322, 327 Spectacles, inverting, 176-7 Speech active, 41 the cortex and, 288 Speech-perception, 25 Speech sounds, 25, 26 Spelling out, 210, 211 Spemann, H., 69 Spencer, Herbert, 200 Spengler, Oswald, 313 Sperry, R.W., 211 Spider's web, 76 Spinal consciousness, 205 Split mentality, 259, 260, 261 Spurway, Helen, 132 n, 148 Stalin, 258, 26I, 349 Stalinists, 264 'Stamping in', 93 Sticklebacks, 74 Stimulus-deprivation, 226 Stimulus-response theory, 12, 13, 15, 18, 20, 2I, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 41, 43 Stone Age, 299 Strategies, 37, 38, 42, 43, 55, 58, 62, 76, 176, 207 of holons, 342 Strategy of the Genes, The, 123 n Stress, pathological effects of, 231 Structure of beliefs, 254-7 Structural hierarchies, 59 Sub-hierarchies, 95 Sub-skill, 76 Succe
ssion, Wars of, 234 Sun fish, 140 Surgery spare-part, 65 transplants, 70 Suzuki, D., 262 Swift, J. 339 Symbiosis, 343 of organelles, 66 Symbolic hierarchies, 61 Sympathetic nervous system, 292-3 Tabes dorsalis, 99 Teilhard, de Chardin, 309 Television screen, analogy with cerebral cortex, 282, 283 Temperature control of the body, 98 Thermodynamics, second law of, 197, 198, 199, 200, 243 Thermonuclear bomb, man and the, 322 Thinking, 182-4 and language, 31 matrix of, 194 visual, 194 'Think-Tank', xi, 25 Thirty Years War, 238 Thompson, d'Arcy, 14o, 14x, 142, 147 Thorndike, E.L., 226 Thorpe, W.H., x, 74, 100, 106, 107, 147 n, 208 Thurber, James, 313 Tight-rope walkers, 208 Tinbergen, N., 100, 157 Tissues, holistic properties of, 69 Titchener, 32 Tolman, E.C., 171 Tolstoy, L., 263 n Torquemada, 234 Totalitarianism, 256-7 Totem, 255 Tranquillisers, 293 Transcendental beliefs, 260 Transformation rules, 36, 37 Transplant surgery, 70 Tree diagram, 24, 59 Tree of language, 23-44 Tribal warfare, 234 Tribalism, 343 Triggers, 71-6, 109, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 131, 171, 174, 210, 295,344-5 Trophotropic system, 293 Turtle, cortical divisions of, 279 Uncertainty principle, 216 n Unconscious, science and, 179-81 Unconsciousness, 205 Universe beginning of, 201 hierarchic order of, 62 Universes of discourse, 35, 36, 182 Unlust, 226, 227 Un-pleasure, 226 Unwisdom, four pillars of, 3-4 Usher, Bishop, 256 van Gogh, 240, 312 Variables, intervening, 23 Varieties of Religious Experience, The, 260 n Verbal behaviour, 21-2, 41 Verbal skills, 344 Verbal symbols, emotive reactions on, 290 Verne, Jules, 321 Vertebrates ancestors of, 163 brain and spinal cord of, 268 learning and, 270 Vicarious emotions, 227 Violence causes of, 233,234 perils of, 233 Viscera, 274, 275 Visceral brain, 283 Visceral sensations, 274 Visual memory, 89 Visual recall, 91 Waddington, C.H., 121, 123 n, 127, 130, 131, 147, 153, 155 n, 159, 202 n, 344 Warfare man and, 302-4 modern, 252 Wars destructive power of, 321-2 ideological, 238 of religion, 234, 238 patriotic, 238 Wasp, digger, 106 Watchmakers, the parable of the, 45-7, 51, 66 Watson, J.B., 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 75, 115, 350 Watt, James, 97, 314 Weapons, effects of invention of, 307 Web, spider's, 76 Weeping, 189, 191, 295 Weiss, Paul, xii, 68, 69, 100 Wheeler, W.M., 273 Whitehead, A.N., 200 Whyte, L.L., xii, 132, 147 n, 200 Wiener, Norbert, 99, 199 Wilson, R.H.L., 68 Wit and witticism, 188 Wittgenstein, L.L., 33 Woltereck, R.L., 200 Woodworth, R.S., 180 Word habit, 28 Words, 48 ambiguity of meanings of, 33 World Wild Life Fund, 128 Wright, W., 3 x4 Yale Review, 161 Yawning, infectious, 247 Young, J.Z., 164 Zen Buddhism, 262 Zuckerman, Solly, 303