“Critics charge that genetic engineering is unnatural, because it changes the very essence of an organism, its deep and profound nature. That idea is Greek and pagan. But the plain fact is that domestication of plants and animals, as practiced for thousands of years, does change the deep and profound nature of an organism. A domestic dog is no longer a wolf. Corn is no longer a stunted, largely inedible weed. Genetic engineering is simply another step in this long-accepted tradition. It does not mark a radical departure from the past.
“Sometimes we hear that we shouldn’t change DNA, period. But why not? DNA is not fixed. DNA changes over time. And DNA interacts constantly with our daily existence. Should we tell athletes not to lift weights, because it will change the size of their muscles? Should we tell students not to read books, because that will change the structure of their developing minds? Of course not. Our bodies are constantly changing, and our DNA with them.
“But more directly—there are five hundred genetic diseases that can, potentially, be cured by gene therapy. Many of these diseases cause terrible suffering in children, early and agonizing death. Other diseases hang over a person’s life like a prison sentence; the person must wait for the disease to come and strike him down. Should we not cure these diseases if we can? Should we not alleviate suffering whenever we can? If so, we must change DNA. Simple as that.
“So do we modify DNA or not? Is this God’s work or man’s hubris? These are not decisions to be taken lightly. And so it is with that most sensitive subject, the use of germ cells and embryos. Many in the Judeo-Christian tradition are unequivocally opposed to embryo use. But such views will, eventually, conflict with the goal of healing the sick and alleviating suffering. Not this year, not next year, but the time will come. Careful thought and much prayer are needed to arrive at our answer. Our Lord Jesus made men walk again. Does that mean we should not do likewise, if we can? It is most difficult, for we know man’s hubris takes many forms—not only overreaching, but also stubbornly holding back. We are put here to reflect the glory of God in all His works, and not the willful ego of man. I, myself, have no answer as I stand before you today. I confess I am troubled in my heart.
“But I have faith that God shall lead us, in the end, to the world that He wants for us. I have faith that we shall be guided to wisdom, that we shall be cautious, and that we shall not be willful in tending His works, His suffering children, and all the creatures in His creation. And for this I pray, most humbly, in the name of God. Amen.”
The speech worked, of course—it always worked. Bellarmino had been giving it in various versions for a decade, and each time, he pushed forward a little harder, spoke a little more firmly. Five years ago, he did not use the wordembryo. Now he did, cautiously and briefly. He was laying the groundwork. He was getting them thinking. The thought of suffering made them uneasy. So did the thought of enabling the crippled to walk again.
Of course, no one knew whether that would ever happen. Personally, Bellarmino doubted it ever would. But let them think it was coming. Let them worry. They should: the stakes were high and the pace of advance rocket-fast. Any research that Washington blocked would take place in Shanghai, or Seoul, or São Paulo. And Bellarmino, skilled and sanctimonious, intended to make sure that never occurred. Nothing, in short, that would interfere with his lab, his research, and his reputation. He was very good at protecting all three.
An hour later,in the wood-paneled hearing room, Bellarmino gave testimony before the House Select Committee on Genetics and Health. The hearing had been called to consider whether it was appropriate for the patent office to grant patents for human genes. Thousands of such patents had already been issued. Was this a good idea?
“There is no question we have a problem,” Dr. Bellarmino said, not looking at his notes. He had memorized his testimony so he could deliver it while facing the television cameras, for greater impact. “Gene patentsby industr y pose a significant problem for future research. On the other hand, gene patenting by academic researchers causes far less concern, since the work is freely shared.”
Of course this was nonsense. Dr. Bellarmino did not mention that the distinction between academic and industry workers had long since been blurred. Twenty percent of academic researchers were paid by industry. Ten percent of academics did drug development. More than 10 percent had a product already on the market. More than 40 percent had applied for patents in the course of their careers.
Nor did Bellarmino mention that he, too, pursued gene patents aggressively. In the last four years, his laboratory had filed 572 patent applications covering a wide spectrum of conditions, from Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia to manic depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit disorders. He had secured patents for dozens of genes for specific metabolic disorders, ranging from deficiency of l-thyroxy-hydrocambrine (associated with restless leg disorder of sleep) to an excess of para-amino-2, 4-dihydroxybenthamine (causing urinary frequency in sleep).
“However,” Dr. Bellarmino said, “I can assure this committee that gene patenting in general is a system that serves the common good. Our procedures to protect intellectual property work well. Important research is protected, and the consumer, the American patient, is the beneficiary of our efforts.”
He did not tell them that more than four thousand DNA-based patents were granted each year—two every hour of each working day. Since there were only thirty-five thousand genes in the human genome, most experts estimated that more than 20 percent of the genome was already privately owned.
Bellarmino did not point out that the biggest patent owner was not some industrial giant but the University of California. UC owned more gene patents than Pfizer, Merck, Lilly, and Wyeth combined. They owned more patents than the U.S. government.
“The notion that someone owns part of the human genome strikes some people as unusual,” Bellarmino said. “But it’s what makes America great and keeps our innovation strong. True, it causes the occasional glitch, but over time, all that will get resolved. Gene patenting is the way to go.”
At the conclusion of his testimony, Dr. Bellarmino left the hearing and headed for Reagan Airport, where he would fly back to Ohio, to resume his research on the “novelty gene,” research being conducted at an amusement park there. Bellarmino had a film crew from60 Minutes following him around, putting together a segment that would show his varied and important genetic research, and also tell his personal story. Time spent in Ohio was a significant part of the final film. Because there he interacted with ordinary people, and as the filmmakers said, the human touch was what was really important, especially with a man of science, and especially on television.
Massachusetts Office of University Technology TransferGOVERNMENT CENTER, BOSTON
For Immediate Release
SCIENTISTS GROW MINIATURE EAR IN LAB
First “Partial Life Form” at MIT
Possible Applications in Hearing Technology
MIT scientists have grown a human ear in tissue culture for the first time.
Australian performance artist Stelarc collaborated with labs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to produce an extra ear for himself. The ear was one-quarter scale, slightly larger than a bottle cap. The tissue taken from Stelarc was cultured in a rotating micro-gravity bioreactor while growing.
MIT issued a statement that the extra ear could be considered “a partial life form—partly constructed and partly grown.” The ear fits comfortably in the palm of the hand.
Last year, the same MIT lab made steaks of frog tissue grown over biopolymer mesh. They had also grown steak from the cells of an unborn sheep. And they created what they referred to as “victimless leather.” This was skin that had been artificially grown in the laboratory and was suitable for shoes, purses, belts, and other leather goods—presumably with an eye to the robust vegan market.
Several hearing-aid companies have opened talks with MIT about licensing their ear-making technology. According to geneticist Zack Rabi, “As the American popul
ation ages, many senior citizens may prefer to grow slightly enlarged, genetically modified ears, rather than rely on hearing-aid technology. A spokesperson for Audion, the hearing-aid company, noted, “We’re not talking about Dumbo ears. Just a small increase of 20 percent in pinna size would double auditory efficiency. We think the market for enlarged ears is huge. When lots of people have them, no one will notice anymore. We believe big ears will become the new standard, like silicon breast implants.”
CH022
It was a bad dayfor Marty Roberts, made much worse by a phone call from Emily Weller:
“Dr. Roberts, I’m calling you from the mortuary. It seems there’s a problem with my husband’s cremation.”
“What kind of problem?” Marty Roberts said, sitting in his office in the pathology lab.
“They’re saying they can’t cremate my Jack if he contains metal.”
“Metal? What do you mean, metal? Your husband didn’t have any hip replacements or war injuries, did he?”
“No, no. They are saying that his arms and legs have metal pipes in them. And the bones have been removed.”
“Really.” Marty stood up in his chair and snapped his fingers in the air, getting Raza’s attention in the autopsy room outside. “I wonder how that could have happened.”
“I was calling to ask you the same thing.”
“I don’t know what to say. It’s quite beyond me, Mrs. Weller. I must say, I’m shocked.”
By then Raza had come in the room.
“I’m going to put you on speaker, Mrs. Weller, so I can make some notes as we speak. Are you with your husband at the crematorium now?”
“Yes,” she said. “And they are saying he has lead pipes in his arms and legs, so they can’t cremate him.”
“I see,” Marty said, looking at Raza.
Raza shook his head. He scrawled on a pad,We just took one leg. Put in wood dowel.
Marty said, “Mrs. Weller, I can’t imagine how this might have happened. There may have to be an inquiry. I am concerned that the funeral home, or perhaps the cemetery, may have done something improper.”
“Well,” she said, “they say he has to be reburied. But they also say maybe I should call the police, because it looks like his bones were stolen. But I don’t want to go through the ordeal of the police and everything.” A long, pregnant pause. “What do you think, Dr. Roberts?”
“Mrs. Weller,” he said, “let me call you right back.”
Marty Roberts hung up the phone. “You dumb fuck! I told you: Wood, always wood!”
“I know it,” Raza said. “We didn’t do that lead job. I swear we didn’t. We always use wood.”
“Lead pipe…” Marty said, shaking his head. “That’s crazy.”
“It wasn’t us, Marty. I swear it wasn’t us. Must have been those bastards at the cemetery. You know how easy it is. They hold the ceremony, the family shovels a little dirt, and everybody goes home. Coffin isn’t buried. They don’t do the actual burial sometimes for a day or so. That night, they come in, take the bones. You know how it works.”
“How doyou know?” Marty said, glaring at him.
“Because, one time last year, woman calls, her husband is buried with the wedding ring, and she wants the ring. Wants to know if we took it off him for the autopsy. I said we didn’t have any effects, but I would call the cemetery. And they hadn’t buried him yet, and she got the ring back.”
Marty Roberts sat down. “Look,” he said, “if there is an investigation, if they start looking at bank accounts…”
“No, no. Trust me.”
“That’s a laugh.”
“Marty, I’m telling you.We didn’t do it. No metal pipe. No.”
“Okay. I heard you. I just don’t believe you.”
Raza tapped the desk. “You’d better use the prescription with her.”
“I will. Now get out of here while I call her back.”
Raza crossedthe autopsy room and went into the changing room. No one was there. He dialed his cell phone. “Jesu,” he said. “What the fuck you doing, man? You put lead pipes in that car crash guy. Shit, Marty’s mad. They’re trying to cremate the dude, he’s got lead pipes in him…Man, how many times do I have to tell you? Use wood!”
“Mrs. Weller,”Marty Roberts said, “I think you better rebury your husband. That seems to be your only option.”
“You mean, unless I go to the police. About the stolen bones.”
“I can’t tell you what to do,” he said. “You’ll have to decide the best course of action. But I’m sure a prolonged police investigation will turn up a prescription in your name for ethacrynic acid from Longwood Pharmacy, on Motor Drive.”
“That was for my personal use.”
“Oh, I know that. It’s just a question of how ethacrynic acid happened to end up in your husband’s body. That could be awkward.”
“Your hospital lab has found traces of that?”
“Yes, but I am sure the hospital would stop the lab work as soon as you dropped your lawsuit against them. Let me know what you decide to do, Mrs. Weller. Good-bye for now.”
He hung up and looked at the thermometer in the autopsy room. The temperature was 59 degrees. But Marty was sweating.
“I was wonderingwhen you’d show up,” Marilee Hunter said, in the genetics lab. She didn’t look happy. “I’d like to know exactly what part you played in all this.”
“In all what?” he said.
“Kevin McCormick called today. There’s another lawsuit from that Weller family. This time it’s the son of the deceased, Tom Weller. The one who works for a biotech company.”
“What’s his suit about?”
“I was only following protocol,” Marilee said.
“Uh-huh…What’s the suit about?”
“Apparently his health insurance was canceled.”
“Because?”
“His father has theBNB 71 gene for heart disease.”
“He does? That makes no sense. The guy was a health nut.”
“He had the gene. Doesn’t mean it was expressed. We found it in the tissues. And that fact was duly noted. The insurance company picked it up and canceled the son as ‘pre-ill.’”
“How did they get the information?”
“It’s online,” she said.
“It’sonline ?”
“This is a legal inquiry,” she said. “Under state law it’s all discoverable. We’re required to post all lab findings to an FTP address. In theory it’s password-protected, but anyone can get to it.”
“You put genetic dataonline ?”
“Not everyone’s data. Just the lawsuits. Anyway, the son is saying he did not authorize the release of genetic information about himself, which is true. But if we release the father’s information, as we’re required by state law to do, we also release the son’s, which we’re required by lawnot to do. Because his children share half the same genes as the father. One way or another, we break the law.” She sighed. “Tom Weller wants his insurance back, but he won’t get it.”
Marty Roberts leaned against the desk. “So where does it stand?”
“Mr. Weller sued me along with the hospital. Legal is insisting this lab no longer touches any material from the Wellers.” Marilee Hunter sniffed. “We’re off the case.”
Off the case! No more investigation, no digging up the body! Marty Roberts felt nothing but relief, although he did his best to appear distressed. “It’s so unfair,” he said, “the way lawyers just run our society.”
“Doesn’t matter. It’s over, Marty,” she said. “It’s done.”
Marty went backto the pathology lab later that day. “Raza,” he said, “one of us has to leave this lab.”
“I know,” Raza said. “And I’m going to miss you, Marty.”
“What do you mean?”
“I got a new job,” he said, smiling. “Hamilton Hospital in San Francisco. Their diener just had a heart attack. I start day after tomorrow. So with packing and everything, this is my las
t day on the job.”
Marty Roberts stared. “Well,” he said. He didn’t know what else to say.
“I know you get two weeks,” Raza said, “but I told the hospital this was a special case and you would understand. By the way, I have a guy who would be a good replacement. He’s a friend of mine, Jesu. Very good guy. Works in a funeral home right now, so it would not be a big transition.”