58. Reid, The Chip, 1266; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1411.
59. Gordon Moore interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
60. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.
61. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 239.
62. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1469.
63. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
64. Malone, Intel Trinity, 107.
65. Jay Last interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1649; Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 246.
66. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1641.
67. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 3118.
68. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.
69. Arnold Beckman oral history, conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio and Arnold Thackray, Chemical Heritage Foundation, July 23, 1985.
70. Gordon Moore and Jay Last interviews, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
71. Regis McKenna and Michael Malone interviews, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
72. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 1852; author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
73. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
74. Arthur Rock interview, “Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013; author’s interview and papers provided to me by Arthur Rock.
75. “Multifarious Sherman Fairchild,” Fortune, May 1960; “Yankee Tinkerer” (cover story on Sherman Fairchild), Time, July 25, 1960.
CHAPTER FIVE: THE MICROCHIP
1. In addition to the sources cited below, this section draws from Jack Kilby, “Turning Potentials into Realities,” Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 8, 2000; Jack Kilby, “Invention of the Integrated Circuit,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, July 1976; T. R. Reid, The Chip (Simon & Schuster, 1984; locations refer to the Kindle edition).
2. Jack Kilby, biographical essay, Nobel Prize organization, 2000.
3. Reid, The Chip, 954.
4. Reid, The Chip, 921.
5. Reid, The Chip, 1138.
6. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 2386. The Fairchild notebooks are being preserved and are on display at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California.
7. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 2515.
8. Robert Noyce oral history, IEEE.
9. Reid, The Chip, 1336; Robert Noyce oral history, IEEE.
10. Robert Noyce journal entry, Jan. 23, 1959, Computer History Museum, Mountain View, California. For a picture of the page, see http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the-relics-of-st-bob/.
11. J. S. Kilby, “Capacitor for Miniature Electronic Circuits or the Like,” patent application US 3434015 A, Feb. 6, 1959; Reid, The Chip, 1464.
12. R. N. Noyce, “Semiconductor Device-and-Lead Structure,” patent application US 2981877 A, July 30, 1959; Reid, The Chip, 1440.
13. Reid, The Chip, 1611 and passim.
14. Noyce v. Kilby, U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, Nov. 6, 1969.
15. Reid, The Chip, 1648.
16. Jack Kilby oral history, conducted by Arthur L. Norberg, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, June 21, 1984.
17. Craig Matsumoto, “The Quiet Jack Kilby,” Valley Wonk column, Heavy Reading, June 23, 2005.
18. Reid, The Chip, 3755, 3775; Jack Kilby, Nobel Prize lecture, Dec. 8, 2000.
19. Paul Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing (MIT Press, 1998), 187.
20. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, chapter 6.
21. Reid, The Chip, 2363, 2443.
22. Robert Noyce, “Microelectronics,” Scientific American, Sept. 1977.
23. Gordon Moore, “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits,” Electronics, Apr. 1965.
24. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 3177.
25. Gordon Moore interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
26. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.
27. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 3529.
28. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
29. John Wilson, The New Venturers (Addison-Wesley, 1985), chapter 2.
30. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock; David Kaplan, The Silicon Boys (Morrow, 1999), 165 and passim.
31. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
32. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
33. Malone, Intel Trinity, 4, 8.
34. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4393.
35. Andrew Grove, Swimming Across (Grand Central, 2001), 2. This section is also based on author’s interviews and conversations with Grove over the years and on Joshua Ramo, “Man of the Year: A Survivor’s Tale,” Time, Dec. 29, 1997; Richard Tedlow, Andy Grove (Portfolio, 2006).
36. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 92.
37. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 96.
38. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 129.
39. Andrew Grove interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
40. Tedlow, Andy Grove, 74; Andy Grove oral history conducted by Arnold Thackray and David C. Brock, July 14 and Sept. 1, 2004, Chemical Heritage Foundation.
41. Author’s interview with Arthur Rock.
42. Michael Malone interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
43. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4400.
44. Ann Bowers interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
45. Ted Hoff interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
46. Wolfe, “The Tinkerings of Robert Noyce.”
47. Malone, Intel Trinity, 115.
48. Author’s interview with Gordon Moore.
49. Malone, Intel Trinity, 130.
50. Ann Bowers interview, “American Experience”; author’s interview with Ann Bowers.
51. Reid, The Chip, 140; Malone, Holy Trinity, 148.
52. Ted Hoff interview, “American Experience: Silicon Valley,” PBS, 2013.
53. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4329.
54. Berlin, The Man Behind the Microchip, 4720.
55. Don Hoefler, “Silicon Valley USA,” Electronic News, Jan. 11, 1971.
CHAPTER SIX: VIDEO GAMES
1. Steven Levy, Hackers (Anchor/Doubleday, 1984; locations refer to the twenty-fifth anniversary reissue, O’Reilly, 2010), 28. In this classic and influential book, which begins with a detailed account of MIT’s Tech Model Railroad Club, Levy describes a “hacker ethic” that includes the following: “Access to computers—and anything else which might teach you about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!” In addition to Levy’s book and specific sources cited below, sources for this chapter include author’s interviews with Steve Russell and Stewart Brand; Steve Russell oral history, conducted by Al Kossow, Aug. 9, 2008, Computer History Museum; J. Martin Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar,” Creative Computing, Aug. 1981; Stewart Brand, “Spacewar,” Rolling Stone, Dec. 7, 1972.
2. Levy, Hackers, 7.
3. “Definition of Hackers,” website of the Tech Model Railroad Club, http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html.
4. Brand, “Spacewar.”
5. Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”
6. Steve Russell oral history, Computer History Museum; Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”
7. Author’s interview with Steve Russell.
8. Graetz, “The Origin of Spacewar.”
9. Brand, “Spacewar.”
10. Author’s interview with Steve Russell.
11. Sources for this section include author’s interviews with Nolan Bushnell, Al Alcorn, Steve Jobs (for previous book), and Steve Wozniak; Tristan Donovan, Replay: The Story of Video Games (Yellow Ant, 2010; locations refer to the Kindle edition); Steven Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon (Three Rivers, 2001); Scott Cohen, Zap! The Rise and Fall of Atari (McGraw-Hill, 1984); Henry Lowood, “Videogames in Computer Space: The Complex History of Pong,” IEEE Annals, July 2009; John Marko
ff, What the Dormouse Said (Viking, 2005, locations refer to the Kindle edition); Al Alcorn interview, Retro Gaming Roundup, May 2011; Al Alcorn interview, conducted by Cam Shea, IGN, Mar. 10, 2008.
12. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 12.
13. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
14. Nolan Bushnell talk to young entrepreneurs, Los Angeles, May 17, 2013 (author’s notes).
15. Donovan, Replay, 429.
16. Donovan, Replay, 439.
17. Eddie Adlum, quoted in Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 42.
18. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games, 45.
19. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
20. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
21. Author’s interview with Al Alcorn.
22. Donovan, Replay, 520.
23. Author’s interviews with Nolan Bushnell and Al Alcorn. This tale is told in much the same way in other sources, often with a few embellishments.
24. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
25. Nolan Bushnell talk to young entrepreneurs, Los Angeles, May 17, 2013.
26. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
27. Donovan, Replay, 664.
28. Author’s interview with Nolan Bushnell.
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE INTERNET
1. Sources for Vannevar Bush include Vannevar Bush, Pieces of the Action (Morrow, 1970); Pascal Zachary, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century (MIT, 1999); “Yankee Scientist,” Time cover story, Apr. 3, 1944; Jerome Weisner, “Vannevar Bush: A Biographical Memoir,” National Academy of Sciences, 1979; James Nyce and Paul Kahn, editors, From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind’s Machine (Academic Press, 1992); Jennet Conant, Tuxedo Park (Simon & Schuster, 2002); Vannevar Bush oral history, American Institute of Physics, 1964.
2. Weisner, “Vannevar Bush.”
3. Zachary, Endless Frontier, 23.
4. Time, Apr. 3, 1944.
5. Time, Apr. 3, 1944.
6. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 41.
7. Weisner, “Vannevar Bush.”
8. Vannevar Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier (National Science Foundation, July 1945), vii.
9. Bush, Science, 10.
10. Bush, Pieces of the Action, 65.
11. Joseph V. Kennedy, “The Sources and Uses of U.S. Science Funding,” The New Atlantis, Summer 2012.
12. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal (Penguin, 2001), 470. Other sources for this section include author’s interviews with Tracy Licklider (son), Larry Roberts, and Bob Taylor; Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet (Simon & Schuster, 1998); J. C. R. Licklider oral history, conducted by William Aspray and Arthur Norberg, Oct. 28, 1988, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota; J. C. R. Licklider interview, conducted by James Pelkey, “A History of Computer Communications,” June 28, 1988 (Pelkey’s material is only online, http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/index.html); Robert M. Fano, Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider 1915–1990, a Biographical Memoir (National Academies Press, 1998).
13. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
14. Norbert Wiener, “A Scientist’s Dilemma in a Materialistic World” (1957), in Collected Works, vol. 4 (MIT, 1984), 709.
15. Author’s interview with Tracy Licklider.
16. Author’s interview with Tracy Licklider.
17. Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 237.
18. Bob Taylor, “In Memoriam: J. C. R. Licklider,” Aug. 7, 1990, Digital Equipment Corporation publication.
19. J. C. R. Licklider interview, conducted by John A. N. Lee and Robert Rosin, “The Project MAC Interviews,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Apr. 1992.
20. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
21. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
22. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960, http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html.
23. David Walden and Raymond Nickerson, editors, A Culture of Innovation: Insider Accounts of Computing and Life at BBN (privately printed at the Harvard bookstore, 2011), see http://walden-family.com/bbn/.
24. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
25. J. C. R. Licklider, Libraries of the Future (MIT, 1965), 53.
26. Licklider, Libraries of the Future, 4.
27. Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report (Harper, 1961), 415; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 17.
28. James Killian interview, “War and Peace,” WGBH, Apr. 18, 1986; James Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower (MIT, 1982), 20.
29. Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture (University of Chicago, 2006), 108.
30. Licklider oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
31. Licklider interview, conducted by James Pelkey; see also James Pelkey, “Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.1-IntergalacticNetwork_1962-1964.html#_ftn1.
32. J. C. R. Licklider, “Memorandum for Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network,” ARPA, Apr. 23, 1963. See also J. C. R. Licklider and Welden Clark, “Online Man-Computer Communications,” Proceedings of AIEE-IRE, Spring 1962.
33. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
34. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.
35. Bob Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum, 2008; author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
36. Michael Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning (Harper, 1999; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 536. 530.
37. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
38. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
39. Robert Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum; author’s interview with Bob Taylor; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 86.
40. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 591, has the fullest description of this meeting. See also Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, 1120; Kleinrock oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.
41. Charles Herzfeld interview with Andreu Veà, “The Unknown History of the Internet,” 2010, http://www.computer.org/comphistory/pubs/2010-11-vea.pdf.
42. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
43. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.
44. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.
45. As with the tale of Herzfeld funding ARPANET after a twenty-minute meeting, this story of Taylor recruiting Roberts down to Washington has been oft-told. This version comes from author’s interviews with Taylor and Roberts; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 667; Stephen Segaller, Nerds 2.0.1 (TV Books, 1998), 47; Bob Taylor oral history, Computer History Museum; Larry Roberts, “The Arpanet and Computer Networks,” Proceedings of the ACM Conference on the History of Personal Workstations, Jan. 9, 1986.
46. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
47. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
48. Author’s interview with Larry Roberts.
49. Larry Roberts oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
50. Author’s interview with Bob Taylor.
51. Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (MIT, 1999), 1012; Larry Roberts oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
52. Wes Clark oral history, conducted by Judy O’Neill, May 3, 1990, Charles Babbage Institute.
53. There are differing versions of this story, including some that say it was a taxi ride. Bob Taylor insists it was in a car he had rented. Author’s interviews with Bob Taylor and Larry Roberts; Robert Taylor oral history, conducted by Paul McJones, Oct. 2008, Computer History Museum; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1054; Segaller, Nerds, 62.
54. Author’s interview with Vint Cerf.
55. Paul Baran, “On Distributed Computer Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Communications Systems, Mar. 1964.
This section on Baran draws on John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future (Overlook, 2000), chapter 6; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 314 and passim; Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 723, 1119.
56. Paul Baran interview, in James Pelkey, “Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation,” http://www.historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.4-Paul%20Baran-59-65.html#_ftn9.
57. Paul Baran oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008; interview with Paul Baran, by Stewart Brand, Wired, Mar. 2001; Paul Baran oral history, conducted by David Hochfelder, Oct. 24, 1999, IEEE History Center; Clayton Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma (Harper, 1997).
58. Donald Davies, “A Historical Study of the Beginnings of Packet Switching,” Computer Journal, British Computer Society, 2001; Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 558; author’s interview with Larry Roberts; Trevor Harris, “Who Is the Father of the Internet? The Case for Donald Davies,” http://www.academia.edu.
59. Author’s interview with Leonard Kleinrock; Leonard Kleinrock oral history, conducted by John Vardalas, IEEE History Center, Feb. 21, 2004.
60. Author’s interview with Leonard Kleinrock.
61. Kleinrock oral history, IEEE.
62. Segaller, Nerds, 34.
63. Author’s interviews with Kleinrock, Roberts; see also Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 1009; Segaller, Nerds, 53.
64. Leonard Kleinrock, “Information Flow in Large Communications Nets,” proposal for a PhD thesis, MIT, May 31, 1961. See also Leonard Kleinrock, Communication Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Design (McGraw-Hill, 1964).