THE UNITED AMATEUR JANUARY 1920
Literary Composition
H. P. Lovecraft
In a former article our readers have been shewn the fundamental sourcesof literary inspiration, and the leading prerequisites to expression. Itremains to furnish hints concerning expression itself; its forms,customs, and technicalities, in order that the young writer may losenothing of force or charm in presenting his ideas to the public.
Grammar
A review of the elements of English grammar would be foreign to thepurpose of this department. The subject is one taught in all commonschools, and may be presumed to be understood by every aspirant toauthorship. It is necessary, however, to caution the beginner to keep areliable grammar and dictionary always beside him, that he may avoid inhis compositions the frequent errors which imperceptibly corrupt eventhe purest ordinary speech. As a general rule, it is well to give closecritical scrutiny to all colloquial phrases and expressions of doubtfulparsing, as well as to all words and usages which have a strained orunfamiliar sound. The human memory is not to be trusted too far, andmost minds harbour a considerable number of slight linguistic faults andinelegancies picked up from random discourse or from the pages ofnewspapers, magazines, and popular modern books.
Types of Mistakes
Most of the mistakes of young authors, aside from those gross violationsof syntax which ordinary education corrects, may perhaps be enumeratedas follows.
(1) Erroneous plurals of nouns, as =vallies= or =echos=.
(2) Barbarous compound nouns, as =viewpoint= or =upkeep=.
(3) Want of correspondence in number between noun and verb where the two are widely separated or the construction involved.
(4) Ambiguous use of pronouns.
(5) Erroneous case of pronouns, as =whom= for =who=, and vice versa, or phrases like "between you and =I=," or "Let =we= who are loyal, act promptly."
(6) Erroneous use of =shall= and =will=, and of other auxiliary verbs.
(7) Use of intransitive for transitive verbs, as "he =was graduated= from college," or vice versa, as "he =ingratiated= with the tyrant."
(8) Use of nouns for verbs, as "he =motored= to Boston," or "he =voiced= a protest."
(9) Errors in moods and tenses of verbs, as "If I =was= he, I should do otherwise," or "He said the earth =was= round."
(10) The split infinitive, as "=to= calmly =glide=."
(11) The erroneous perfect infinitive, as "Last week I expected =to have met= you."
(12) False verb-forms, as "I =pled= with him."
(13) Use of =like= for =as=, as "I strive to write =like= Pope wrote."
(14) Misuse of prepositions, as "The gift was bestowed =to= an unworthy object," or "The gold was divided =between= the five men."
(15) The superfluous conjunction, as "I wish =for= you to do this."
(16) Use of words in wrong =senses=, as "The book greatly =intrigued= me," "=Leave= me take this," "He was =obsessed= with the idea," or "He is a =meticulous= writer."
(17) Erroneous use of non-Anglicised foreign forms, as "a strange =phenomena=," or "two =stratas= of clouds."
(18) Use of false or unauthorized words, as =burglarize= or =supremest=.
(19) Errors of taste, including vulgarisms, pompousness, repetition, vagueness, ambiguousness, colloquialism, bathos, bombast, pleonasm, tautology, harshness, mixed metaphor, and every sort of rhetorical awkwardness.
(20) Errors of spelling and punctuation, and confusion of forms such as that which leads many to place an apostrophe in the possessive pronoun =its=.
Of all blunders, there is hardly one which might not be avoided throughdiligent study of simple textbooks on grammar and rhetoric, intelligentperusal of the best authors, and care and forethought in composition.Almost no excuse exists for their persistent occurrence, since thesources of correction are so numerous and so available. Many of thepopular manuals of good English are extremely useful, especially topersons whose reading is not as yet extensive; but such works sometimeserr in being too pedantically precise and formal. For correct writing,the cultivation of patience and mental accuracy is essential. Throughoutthe young author's period of apprenticeship, he must keep reliabledictionaries and textbooks at his elbow; eschewing as far as possiblethat hasty extemporaneous manner of writing which is the privilege ofmore advanced students. He must take no popular usage for granted, normust he ever hesitate, in case of doubt, to fall back on the authorityof his books.
Reading
No aspiring author should content himself with a mere acquisition oftechnical rules. As Mrs. Renshaw remarked in the preceding article,"Impression should ever precede and be stronger than expression." Allattempts at gaining literary polish must begin with judicious =reading=,and the learner must never cease to hold this phase uppermost. In manycases, the usage of good authors will be found a more effective guidethan any amount of precept. A page of Addison or of Irving will teachmore of style than a whole manual of rules, whilst a story of Poe's willimpress upon the mind a more vivid notion of powerful and correctdescription and narration than will ten dry chapters of a bulkytextbook. Let every student read unceasingly the best writers, guided bythe admirable Reading Table which has adorned the UNITED AMATEUR duringthe past two years.
It is also important that cheaper types of reading, if hithertofollowed, be dropped. Popular magazines inculcate a careless anddeplorable style which is hard to unlearn, and which impedes theacquisition of a purer style. If such things must be read, let them beskimmed over as lightly as possible. An excellent habit to cultivate isthe analytical study of the King James Bible. For simple yet rich andforceful English, this masterly production is hard to equal; and eventhough its Saxon vocabulary and poetic rhythm be unsuited to generalcomposition, it is an invaluable model for writers on quaint orimaginative themes. Lord Dunsany, perhaps the greatest living proseartist, derived nearly all of his stylistic tendencies from theScriptures; and the contemporary critic Boyd points out very acutely theloss sustained by most Catholic Irish writers through theirunfamiliarity with the historic volume and its traditions.
Vocabulary
One superlatively important effect of wide reading is the enlargement ofvocabulary which always accompanies it. The average student is gravelyimpeded by the narrow range of words from which he must choose, and hesoon discovers that in long compositions he cannot avoid monotony. Inreading, the novice should note the varied mode of expression practicedby good authors, and should keep in his mind for future use the manyappropriate synonymes he encounters. Never should an unfamiliar word bepassed over without elucidation; for with a little conscientiousresearch we may each day add to our conquests in the realm of philology,and become more and more ready for graceful independent expression.
But in enlarging the vocabulary, we must beware lest we misuse our newpossessions. We must remember that there are fine distinctions betwixtapparently similar words, and that language must ever be selected withintelligent care. As the learned Dr. Blair points out in his Lectures,"Hardly in any language are there two words that convey precisely thesame idea; a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of languagewill always be able to observe something that distinguishes them."
Elemental Phases
Before considering the various formal classes of composition, it is wellto note certain elements common to them all. Upon analysis, every pieceof writing will be found to contain one or more of the following basicprinciples: =Description=, or an account of the appearance of things;=Narration=, or an account of the actions of things; =Exposition=, whichdefines and explains with precision and lucidity; =Argument=, whichdiscovers truth and rejects error; and =Persuasion=, which urges tocertain thoughts or acts. The first two are the bases of fiction; thethird didactic, scientific, historical and editorial writings. Thefourth and fifth are mostly employed in conjunction with the third, inscientific, philosophic
al, and partisan literature. All theseprinciples, however, are usually mingled with one another. The work offiction may have its scientific, historical, or argumentative side;whilst the textbook or treatise may be embellished with descriptions andanecdotes.
Description
Description, in order to be effective, calls upon two mental qualities;observation and discrimination. Many descriptions depend for theirvividness upon the accurate reproduction of details; others upon thejudicious selection of salient, typical, or significant points.
One cannot be too careful in the selection of adjectives fordescriptions. Words or compounds which describe precisely, and whichconvey exactly the right suggestions to the mind of the reader, areessential. As an example, let us consider the following list of epithetsapplicable to a =fountain=, taken from Richard Green Parker's admirablework on composition.
Crystal, gushing, rustling, silver, gently-gliding, parting, pearly, weeping, bubbling, gurgling, chiding, clear, grass-fringed, moss-fringed, pebble-paved, verdant, sacred, grass-margined, moss-margined, trickling, soft, dew-sprinkled, fast-flowing, delicate, delicious, clean, straggling, dancing, vaulting, deep-embosomed, leaping, murmuring, muttering, whispering, prattling, twaddling, swelling, sweet-rolling, gently-flowing, rising, sparkling, flowing, frothy, dew-distilling, dew-born, exhaustless, inexhaustible, never-decreasing, never-failing, heaven-born, earth-born, deep-divulging, drought-dispelling, thirst-allaying, refreshing, soul-refreshing, earth-refreshing, laving, lavish, plant-nourishing.
For the purpose of securing epithets at once accurate and felicitous,the young author should familiarize himself thoroughly with the generalaspect and phenomena of Nature, as well as with the ideas andassociations which these things produce in the human mind.
Descriptions may be of objects, of places, of animals, and of persons.The complete description of an object may be said to consist of thefollowing elements:
1. When, where, and how seen; when made or found; how affected by time.
2. History and traditional associations.
3. Substance and manner of origin.
4. Size, shape, and appearance.
5. Analogies with similar objects.
6. Sensations produced by contemplating it.
7. Its purpose or function.
8. Its effects--the results of its existence.
Descriptions of places must of course vary with the type of the place.Of natural scenery, the following elements are notable:
1. How beheld--at dawn, noon, evening, or night; by starlight or moonlight.
2. Natural features--flat or hilly; barren or thickly grown; kind of vegetation; trees, mountains, and rivers.
3. Works of man--cultivation, edifices, bridges; modifications of scenery produced by man.
4. Inhabitants and other forms of animal life.
5. Local customs and traditions.
6. Sounds--of water; forest; leaves; birds; barnyards; human beings; machinery.
7. View--prospect on every side, and the place itself as seen from afar.
8. Analogies to other scenes, especially famous scenes.
9. History and associations.
10. Sensations produced by contemplating it.
Descriptions of animals may be analyzed thus:
1. Species and size.
2. Covering.
3. Parts.
4. Abode.
5. Characteristics and habits.
6. Food.
7. Utility or harmfulness.
8. History and associations.
Descriptions of persons can be infinitely varied. Sometimes a singlefelicitous touch brings out the whole type and character, as when themodern author Leonard Merrick hints at shabby gentility by mentioningthe combination of a frock coat with the trousers of a tweed suit.Suggestion is very powerful in this field, especially when mentalqualities are to be delineated. Treatment should vary with the author'sobject; whether to portray a mere personified idea, or to give a quasiphotographic view, mental and physical, of some vividly livingcharacter. In a general description, the following elements may befound:
1. Appearance, stature, complexion, proportions, features.
2. Most conspicuous feature.
3. Expression.
4. Grace or ugliness.
5. Attire--nature, taste, quality.
6. Habits, attainments, graces, or awkwardnesses.
7. Character--moral and intellectual--place in the community.
8. Notable special qualities.
In considering the preceding synopses, the reader must remember thatthey are only suggestions, and not for =literal= use. The extent of anydescription is to be determined by its place in the composition; bytaste and fitness. It should be added, that in fiction description mustnot be carried to excess. A plethora of it leads to dulness, so that itmust ever be balanced by a brisk flow of =Narration=, which we are aboutto consider.
Narration
Narration is an account of action, or of successive events, either realor imagined; and is therefore the basis both of history and of fiction.To be felicitous and successful, it demands an intelligent exercise oftaste and discrimination; salient points must be selected, and the orderof time and of circumstances must be well maintained. It is deemedwisest in most cases to give narratives a climactic form; leading fromlesser to greater events, and culminating in that chief incident uponwhich the story is primarily founded, or which makes the other partsimportant through its own importance. This principle, of course, cannotbe literally followed in all historical and biographical narratives.
Fictional Narration
The essential point of fictional narration is =plot=, which may bedefined as a =sequence of incidents designed to awaken the reader'sinterest and curiosity as to the result=. Plots may be simple orcomplex; but suspense, and climactic progress from one incident toanother, are essential. Every incident in a fictional work should havesome bearing on the climax or denouement, and any denouement which isnot the inevitable result of the preceding incidents is awkward andunliterary. No formal course in fiction-writing can equal a close andobservant perusal of the stories of Edgar Allan Poe or Ambrose Bierce.In these masterpieces one may find that unbroken sequence and linkage ofincident and result which mark the ideal tale. Observe how, in "The Fallof the House of Usher," each separate event foreshadows and leads up tothe tremendous catastrophe and its hideous suggestion. Poe was anabsolute master of the mechanics of his craft. Observe also how Biercecan attain the most stirring denouements from a few simple happenings;denouements which develop purely from these preceding circumstances.
In fictional narration, verisimilitude is absolutely essential. A storymust be consistent and must contain no event glaringly removed from theusual order of things, unless that event is the main incident, and isapproached with the most careful preparation. In real life, odd anderratic things do occasionally happen; but they are out of place in anordinary story, since fiction is a sort of idealization of the average.Development should be as lifelike as possible, and a weak, tricklingconclusion should be assiduously avoided. The end of a story must bestronger rather than weaker than the beginning; since it is the endwhich contains the denouement or culmination, and which will leave thestrongest impression upon the reader. It would not be amiss for thenovice to write the last paragraph of his story first, once a synopsisof the plot has been carefully prepared--as it always should be. In thisway he will be able to concentrate his freshest mental vigour upon themost important part of his narrative; and if any changes be later foundneedful, they can easily be made. In no part of a narrative should agrand or emphatic thought or passage be followed by one of tame orprosaic quality. This is =anticlimax=, and exposes a writer to muchridicule. Notice the absurd effect of the following couplet--which was,however, written by no less a person than Waller:
 
; "Under the tropic is our language spoke, =And part of Flanders hath receiv'd our yoke=."
Unity, Mass, Coherence
In developing a theme, whether descriptive or narrative, it is necessarythat three structural qualities be present: Unity, Mass, and Coherence.Unity is that principle whereby every part of a composition must havesome bearing on the central theme. It is the principle which excludesall extraneous matter, and demands that all threads converge toward theclimax. Classical violations of Unity may be found in the =episodes= ofHomer and other epic poets of antiquity, as well as in the digressionsof Fielding and other celebrated novelists; but no beginner shouldventure to emulate such liberties. Unity is the quality we have latelynoted and praised in Poe and Bierce.
Mass is that principle which requires the more important parts of acomposition to occupy correspondingly important places in the wholecomposition, the paragraph, and the sentence. It is that law of tastewhich insists that emphasis be placed where emphasis is due, and is moststrikingly embodied in the previously mentioned necessity for anemphatic ending. According to this law, the end of a composition is itsmost important part, with the beginning next in importance.
Coherence is that principle which groups related parts together andkeeps unrelated parts removed from one another. It applies, like Mass,to the whole composition, the paragraph, or the sentence. It demandsthat kindred events be narrated without interruption, effect followingcause in a steady flow.
Forms of Composition
Few writers succeed equally in all the various branches of literature.Each type of thought has its own particular form of expression, based onnatural appropriateness; and the average author tends to settle intothat form which best fits his particular personality. Many, however,follow more than one form; and some writers change from one form toanother as advancing years produce alterations in their mental processesor points of view.
It is well, in the interests of breadth and discipline, for the beginnerto exercise himself to some degree in every form of literary art. He maythus discover that which best fits his mind, and develop hithertounsuspected potentialities.
We have so far surveyed only those simpler phases of writing whichcentre in prose fiction and descriptive essays. Hereafter we hope totouch upon didactic, argumentative, and persuasive writing; toinvestigate to some extent the sources of rhetorical strength andelegance; and to consider a few major aspects of versification.