FIG. 55—BALTHASAR PERMOSER: St. Ambrose. Museum, Bautzen, Germany (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 405
FIG. 56—E. G. HAUSSMANN: Johann Sebastian Bach. Thomasschule, Leipzig (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 412
FIG. 57–ENGRAVING AFTER A PAINTING BY ANTOINE PESNE: Frederick the Great as a Child of Three, with His Sister Wilhelmine. Formerly in the Berlin Museum (Bettmann Archive) PAGES 404, 439
FIG. 58—ENGRAVING AFTER A PAINTING BY CARLE VANLOO: Frederick the Great. (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 439
FIG. 59—GEORG WENZESLAUS VON KNOBELSDORFF: Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 406
FIG. 60—JOHANN LUKAS VON HILDEBRANDT: Upper Belvedere Palace, Vienna (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 433
FIG. 61–JOHANN BERNHARD FISCHER VON ERLACH AND OTHERS: Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna. Photograph courtesy of the Austrian State Tourist Office PAGE 433
FIG. 62–Maria Theresa Monument, Vienna. Photograph by O. V. W. Hubmann, courtesy of the Austrian State Tourist Office PAGE 431
FIG. 63–JOHANN BERNHARD FISCHER VON ERLACH AND HIS SON JOSEF EMANUEL: Karls-kirche (Church of St. Charles), Vienna (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 432
FIG. 64—GEORG RAPHAEL DONNER: Andromeda Fountain, Vienna (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 434
FIG. 65–JOHANN BERNHARD FISCHER VON ERLACH AND HIS SON JOSEF EMANUEL: Central Hall, National Library, Vienna (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 433
FIG. 66–DANIEL GRAN: Cupola Frescoes in the National Library, Vienna (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 434
FIG. 67–GEORG WENZESLAUS VON KNOBELSDORFF: The Golden Gallery in the Schloss Charlottenburg. From Max Osborn, Die Kunst des Rokoko (Berlin: Propyläen-Verlag, 1926) PAGE 404
FIG. 68—GEORG RAPHAEL DONNER: St. Martin and the Beggar, Pressburg (now Bratislava) Cathedral (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 434
FIG. 69—Voltaire’s Villa Les Délices, Geneva, now the Institut et Musée Voltaire (Photograph by Jean Arlaud) PAGE 472
FIG. 70—GEORG RAPHAEL DONNER: Marble relief, Hagar in the Wilderness, Barockmuseum, Vienna PAGE 434
FIG. 71—JACQUES ANDRÉ NAIGEON: Pierre Simon Laplace. From E. T. Bell, Men of Mathematics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1937) PAGE 546
FIG. 72—JAMES SHARPLES: Joseph Priestley. National Portrait Gallery, London (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 526
FIG. 73—UNKNOWN ARTIST: Leonard Euler. From E. T. Bell, Men of Mathematics (Simon and Schuster, 1937) PAGE 509
FIG. 74—ENGRAVING FROM A BUST IN THE LIBRARY OF THE INSTITUT DE FRANCE: Joseph Louis Lagrange. (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 510
FIG. 75—LEMUEL FRANCIS ABBOTT: William Herschel. National Portrait Gallery, London (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 541
FIG. 76—ENGRAVING AFTER A PAINTING BY HUBERT DROUAIS IN THE INSTITUT DE FRANCE: Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon. (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 569
FIG. 77—JACQUES LOUIS DAVID: Lavoisier and His Wife. Rockefeller Foundation, New York (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 531
FIG. 78—C. TROOST: Hermann Boerhaave. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 507
FIG. 79—ANGELICA KAUFFMANN: Giovanni Battista Morgagni. (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 586
FIG. 80—M. HOFFMAN: Carl Linnaeus in Lapp Dress. (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 561
FIG. 81—SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS: John Hunter. Royal College of Surgeons of England, London PAGE 587
FIG. 82—GIULIO MONTEVERDE: Edward Jenner Vaccinating a Child. Palazzo Bianco, Genoa (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 596
FIG. 83—UNKNOWN ARTIST: Julien Offroy de La Mettrie. From La Mettrie, Man A Machine (Chicago: Open Court Publishing Co., 1912) PAGE 617
FIG. 84—EBERLEIN: Albrecht von Holler. (Bettmann Archive) PAGES 477, 588
FIG. 85—JEAN HONORÉ FRAGONARD: Denis Diderot. Louvre, Paris (Bettmann Archive) PAGE 623
FIG. 86—ENGRAVING AFTER A PAINTING BY LA TOUR: D’Alembert. (Bettmann Archive) PAGES 515, 635
FIG. 87—CARMONTELLE: Baron d’Holbach. Musée Condé, Chantilly (Photographie Giraudon, Paris) PAGE 695
FIG. 88—ENGRAVING AFTER MICHEL VANLOO: Claude Adrien Helvétius. National Library, Vienna PAGE 680
FIG. 89—CHARLES NICOLAS COCHIN II: Frontispiece of the “Encyclopédie.” Albertina Museum, Vienna PAGE 635
FIG. 90—JEAN ANTOINE HOUDON: Voltaire in Old Age. Château de Versailles (Bettmann Archive)
About the Authors
WILL DURANT was born in North Adams, Massachusetts, on November 5, 1885. He was educated in the Catholic parochial schools there and in Kearny, New Jersey, and thereafter in St. Peter’s (Jesuit) College, Jersey City, New Jersey, and Columbia University. New York. For a summer he served as a cub reporter on the New York Journal, in 1907, but finding the work too strenuous for his temperament;, he settled down at Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey, to teach Latin, French, English, and geometry (1907–11). He entered the seminary at Seton Hall in 1909, but withdrew in 1911 for reasons he has described in his book Transition. He passed from this quiet seminary to the most radical circles in New York, and became (1911–13) the teacher of the Ferrer Modern School, an experiment in libertarian education. In 1912 he toured Europe at the invitation and expense of Alden Freeman, who had befriended him and now undertook to broaden his borders.
Returning to the Ferrer School, he fell in love with one of his pupils—who had been born Ida Kaufman in Russia on May 10, 1898—resigned his position, and married her (1913). For four years he took graduate work at Columbia University, specializing in biology under Morgan and Calkins and in philosophy under Wood-bridge and Dewey. He received the doctorate in philosophy in 1917, and taught philosophy at Columbia University for one year. In 1914, in a Presbyterian church in New York, he began those lectures on history, literature, and philosophy that, continuing twice weekly for thirteen years, provided the initial material for his later works.
The unexpected success of The Story of Philosophy (1926) enabled him to retire from teaching in 1927. Thenceforth, except for some incidental essays Mr. and Mrs. Durant gave nearly all their working hours (eight to fourteen daily) to The Story of Civilization. To better prepare themselves they toured Europe in 1927, went around the world in 1930 to study Egypt, the Near East, India, China, and Japan, and toured the globe again in 1932 to visit Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Russia, and Poland. These travels provided the background for Our Oriental Heritage (1935) as the first volume in The Story of Civilization. Several further visits to Europe prepared for Volume 2, The Life of Greece (1939), and Volume 3, Caesar and Christ (1944). In 1948, six months in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and Europe provided perspective for Volume 4, The Age of Faith (1950). In 1951 Mr. and Mrs. Durant returned to Italy to add to a lifetime of gleanings for Volume 5, The Renaissance (1953); and in 1954 further studies in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England opened new vistas for Volume 6, The Reformation (1957).
Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more and more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume 7, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so great that justice required the union of both names on the title page. And so it was on The Age of Louis XIV (1963), The Age of Voltaire (1965), and Rousseau and Revolution (winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1968).
The publication of Volume 11, The Age of Napoleon, in 1975 concluded five decades of achievement. Ariel Durant died on October 25, 1981, at the age of 83; Will Durant died 13 days later, on November 7, aged 96. Their last published work was A Dual Autobiography (1977).
BY WILL DURANT
The Story of Philosophy
Transition
The Pleasure of Philosophy
Adventures in Genius
BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
1. Our Oriental Heritage
2. The Life of Greece
3. Caesar and Christ
4. The Age of Faith
5. The Renaissance
6. The Reformation
7. The Age of Reason Begins
8. The Age of Louis XIV
9. The Age of Voltaire
10. Rousseau and Re
volution
11. The Age of Napoleon
The Lessons of History
Interpretation of Life
A Dual Autobiography
Notes
APOLOGY
1. Brandes, G., Voltaire, I, 4.
2. Cousin, Victor, Histoire de la philosophie, in Buckle, H. T., History of Civilization in England, I, 519n.
3. Voltaire, Age of Louis XIV, 16.
CHAPTER I
1. Brandes, Voltaire, I, 30.
2. Ibid., 31; Parton, James, Life of Voltaire, I, 26; Campbell, T. J., The Jesuits, 354.
3. Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et la société française au xviiie siècle, I, 32.
4. Ibid., 17–18.
5. Letter of Feb. 7, 1746, to Father Latour, in Desnoiresterres, I, 24; Brandes, I, 44.
6. Parton, I, 53.
7. Hazard, Paul, European Thought in the 18th Century, 129.
8. Parton, I, 66.
9. Desnoiresterres, I, 171.
10. Duclos, C. P., Secret Memoirs of the Regency, 6.
11. Saint-Simon, Memoirs, II, 329.
12. Duclos, 10.
13. Saint-Simon, II, 326.
14. Desnoiresterres, I, 96.
15. Wormeley, K. P., Correspondence of Madame, Princess Palatine, … Marie Adélaïde de Savoie,…and Mme. de Maintenon, 29.
16. Guizot, F., History of France, V, 3.
17. Martin, Henri, Histoire de France, XV, 13.
18. Ducros, Louis, French Society in the 18th Century, 55.
19. Martin, H., XV, 20–22; Desnoiresterres, I, 164.
20. Stryienski, C, Eighteenth Century, 82.
21. Beard, Miriam, History of the Business Man, 47.
22. Martin, H., XV, 53.
23. Voltaire, Works, XVI, 20.
24. Martin, H., XV, 54.
25. Michelet, J., Histoire de France, V, 268.
26. Saint-Simon, II, 232.
27. Ibid., III, 239.
28. Martin, H., XV, 62.
29. Saint-Simon, III, 243.
30. In Lacroix, Paul, Eighteenth Century in France, 201.
31. Wormeley, 31.
32. Guizot, V, 42.
33. Duclos, Secret Memoirs, 70.
34. Martin, H., XV., 107.
35. Saint-Simon, III, 338.
36. Michelet, V, 133.
37. Ibid 135.
38. Saint-Simon, III, 69.
39. Voltaire, Works, XVIa, 155.
40. Saint-Simon, III, 418.
41. Cambridge Modern History, II, 133.
42. Michelet, V, 197; Martin, H., XV, 1m.
43. Duclos, Secret Memoirs, 8.
44. Ercole, L., Gay Court Life in France in the 18th Century, 18–20.
45. Saint-Simon, III, 69.
46. Ercole, 27.
47. Ibid., 10.
48. Ducros, French Society, 56.
49. Ercole, 44.
50. Camb. Mod. History, VI, 132.
51. Duclos, Secret Memoirs, 131.
52. Ercole, 44.
53. Martin, H., XIV, 552n., and Michelet, V, 160, credit the charge of incest.
54. Martin, XV, 12.
55. Dupuy, Dialogues sur les plaisirs, 14, in Crocker, L. G., Age of Crisis, 117.
56. Brunetière, F., Manual of the History of French Literature, 282.
57. Wormeley, 30.
58. Lacroix, 83.
59. Michelet, V, 251.
60. Martin, H., XV, 339.
61. Batiffol, L., The Great Literary Salons, 103.
62. Toth, K., Woman and Rococo in France, 107.
63. Ibid.
64. Lacroix, 417.
65. Ercole, 56.
66. Louvre.
67. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
68. Louvre.
69. Metropolitan Mus. of Art.
70. Wallace Collection, London.
71. Dresden, Gemäldegalerie.
72. Wallace Collection.
73. There are outstanding collections of Watteau’s drawings in the Louvre and in the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.
74. Goncourt, E. and J. de, French 18th-century Painters, 1.
75. Aldington, R., French Comedies of the 18th Century, 103.
76. Sainte-Beuve, Portraits of the 18th Century, I, 81.
77. Ibid., 82.
78. Lesage, Adventures of Gil Bias, prefatory memoir.
79. Aldington, 131.
80. Lesage, Gil Bias, Book VIII, Ch. x.
81. Gil Bias, last line.
82. Sainte-Beuve, Portraits, I, 104.
83. Saint-Simon, III, 42; cf. 91–94.
84. Créqui, Marquise de, Souvenirs, 44.
85. Michelet, V, 126.
86. Faguet, Emile, Literary History of France, 474.
87. Saint-Simon, III, 376.
88. Duclos, Secret Memoirs, 326.
89. Michelet, V, 155; Martin, H., XV, 80.
90. Ibid., 115.
91. Saint-Simon, III, 373.
92. Ibid., 376.
93. 77.
94. In Torrey, N., The Spirit of Voltaire, 21.
95. Parton, I, 99.
96. Desnoiresterres, I, 217.
97. Parton, I, 98.
98. Brandes, I, 97.
99. Ibid., 98.
100. 99.
101. Parton, I, 115.
102. Like Desnoiresterres, I, 159, and Brandes, I, 100.
103. Créqui, 149.
104. Desnoiresterres, I, 157.
105. Beard, Miriam, History of the Business Man, 463 ; Brandes, I, 306.
106. Desnoiresterres, I, 190.
107. Parton, I, 154.
108. Desnoiresterres, I, 242; Faguet, Literary History, 469, gives a different version: “Gare que cet écrit in extremis n’aille pas à son addresse.”
109. Parton, I, 165.
110. Voltaire, Works, XXIa, 221.
111. Frederick the Great, Mémoires, I, 59.
112. Desnoiresterres, I, 345.
113. Brandes, I, 152.
114. Ibid.; Parton, I, 185.
115. Parton, I, 190.
CHAPTER II
1. Shakespeare, Richard II, II, i.
2. Defoe, Tour through England and Wales, I, 1 and passim.
3. Voltaire, Lettres philosophiques, No. 9; Ashton, T., Economic History of England: The 18th Century, 36.
4. Quennell, M. and C, History of Everyday Things in England, 21; Mantoux, P., Industrial Revolution in the 18th Century, 165.
5. Quennell, Everyday Things, 12.
6. Trevelyan, G. M., English Social History, 379.
7. Besant, Sir Walter, London in the 18th Century, 386.
8. Lipson, E., Growth of English Society, 212.
9. Nussbaum, Economic Institutions of Modern Europe, 252.
10. Jaurès, Histoire socialiste de la Révolution française, I, 67.
11. Usher, A., History of Mechanical Inventions, 280.
12. Lipson, 196.
13. Ashton, Economic History, 220.
14. Encyclopaedia Britannica, VI, 544a.
15. Mantoux, 73.
16. Ashton, 201–4.
17. In Tawney, R. H., Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, 190.
18. Ashton, 212; Mantoux, 72.
19. Ashton, 203.
20. Webb, S. and B., History of Trade Unionism, 31–50.
21. Mantoux, 119.
22. Chesterfield, Earl of, Letters to His Son, letter of Sept. 22, 1749.
23. Mantoux, 102; Taine, H., Ancient Regime, 33.
24. Beard, M., Business Man, 430.
25. Voltaire, Lettres sur les Anglais, No. 10, in Mantoux, 138.
26. Hume, David, Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, 248.
27. In Beard, M., 435.
28. Lecky, W. E., History of England, I, 323.
29. Mackay, C, Extraordinary Popular Delusions, 50.
30. Ibid., 55.
31. Quennell, P., Caroline of England, 71.
32. Camb. Mod. History, VI, 181.
33. Mackay, 73.
/>
34. Ibid., 78.
35. Voltaire, Works, XIIIa, 23.
36. Ranke, L., History of the Reformation in Germany, 468.
37. Rogers, J. E. T., Economic Interpretation of History, 157; Ashton, 2; Ogg, David, Europe in the 17th Century, 2.
38. Defoe, Tour, I, 337.
39. Besant, London in the 18th Century, 352.
40. Trevelyan, English Social History, 142.
41. Lecky, History of England, I, 482–84.
42. Ibid.
43. Letter of Mar. 23, 1752.
44. Besant, 380–81.
45. W. R. Brock in New Camb. Mod. History, VII, 266.
46. Besant, 238.
47. Lecky, II, 543–45.
48. James, B. B., Women of England, 335.
49. Besant, 138.
50. Markun, L., Mrs. Grundy, 183.
51. Faÿ, B., La Franc-Maçonnerie et la révolution intellectuelle du xviiie siècle, 78–79.
52. Besant, 384.
53. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 15 m.
54. Congreve, Wm., Way of the World, III, iii, in Hampden, J., Eighteenth-Century Plays.
55. Gay, John, Beggar’s Opera, I, v, in Hampden.
56. Halsband, R., Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, 14.
57. Langdon-Davies, J., Short History of Women, 305.
58. Besant, 459; Lecky, I, 522; Quennell, P., Caroline of England, 29.