24 Prof. W. Turner, ‘Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,’ 1866-67, p. 65.
25 Canestrini quotes Hyrt. (‘Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti,’ Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.
26 ‘The Diseases of the Ear,’ by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p. 12.
27 See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the Lemuroidea, in Messrs. Murie and Mivart’s excellent paper in ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.
28 Müller’s ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat., 1842, vol. ii. p. 1117. Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 260; ibid. on the Walrus, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ November 8th, 1854. See also R. Knox, 'Great Artists and Anatomists,’ p. 106. This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in Negroes and Australians than in Europeans, see Carl Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 129.
29 ‘The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 134.
30 Eschricht, Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen Körper 'Müllers Archiv für Anat. und Phys.’ 1837, s. 47. I shall often have to refer to this very curious paper.
31 Paget, ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol. i. p. 71.
32 Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.
33 Dr. Webb, ‘Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,’ as quoted by Dr. C. Carter Blake in ‘Anthropological Review,’ July, 1867, p. 299.
34 Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. pp. 320, 321, and 325.
35 ‘On the Primitive Form of the Skull,’ Eng. translat. in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 426.
36 Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. pp. 416, 434, 441.
37 ‘Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.’ Modena, 1867, p. 94.
38 M. C. Martins (“De l’Unité Organique,” in ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ June 15, 1862, p. 16), and Häckel (‘Generelle Morphologie,’ B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the singular fact of this rudiment sometimes causing death.
39 ‘The Lancet,’ Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, ‘Great Artists and Anatomists,’ p. 63. See also an important memoir on this process by Dr. Grube, in the ‘Bulletin de l’Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersbourg,’ tom. xii. 1867, p. 448.
40 “On the Caves of Gibraltar,” ‘Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehist. Arch.’ Third Session, 1869, p. 54.
41 Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this subject. 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ 1867-1868, p. 625.
42 Owen, ‘On the Nature of Limbs,’ 1849, p. 114.
43 Leuckart, in Todd’s ‘Cyclop. of Anat.’ 1849-52, vol. iv. p. 1415. In man this organ is only from three to six lines in length, but, like so many other rudimentary parts, it is variable in development as well as in other characters.
44 See, on this subject, Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. pp. 675, 676, 706.
45 See the evidence on these points, as given by Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ p. 354, &c.
46 ‘L’Instinct chez les Insectes.’ ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Feb. 1870, p. 690.
47 ‘The American Beaver and his Works,’ 1868.
48 ‘The Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1870, pp. 418-443.
49 ‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 212
50 ‘Recherches sur les Mœurs des Fourmis,’ 1810, p. 173.
51 All the following statements, given on the authority of these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger’s ‘Naturges. der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm’s ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 10-87.
52 ‘Bridgewater Treatise,’ p. 263.
53 W. C. L. Martin, ‘Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,’ 1841, p. 405.
54 Quoted by Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 168.
55 ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27.
56 ‘Les Mœurs des Fourmis,’ 1810, p. 150.
57 Quoted in Dr. Maudsley’s ‘Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 1868, pp. 19, 220.
58 Dr. Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. 1862, p. xxi.
59 Mr. L. H. Morgan’s work on ‘The American Beaver,’ 1868, offers a good illustration of this remark. I cannot, however, avoid thinking that he goes too far in underrating the power of Instinct.
60 ‘The Moor and the Loch,’ p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on ‘Dog Breaking,’ 1850, p. 46.
61 ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.
62 Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, ‘Antiquity of Man,’ p. 497.
63 ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 398. ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th edit. p. 260.
64 ‘Lettres Phil. sur l’Intelligence des Animaux,’ nouvelle edit. 1802, p. 86.
65 See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i. ‘On the Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.’
66 ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1864, p. 186.
67 Savage and Wyman in ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. iv. 1843-44, p. 383.
68 ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 51-56.
69 ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 79, 82.
70 ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. i. 1869, p. 87.
71 ‘Primeval Man,’ 1869, pp. 145, 147.
72 ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p. 473, &c.
73 Quoted in ‘Anthropological Review,’ 1864, p. 158.
74 Rengger, ibid. s. 45.
75 See my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27.
76 See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor’s very interesting work, ‘Researches into the Early History of Mankind,’ 1865, chaps. ii. to iv.
77 Hon. Daines Barrington in ‘Philosoph. Transactions,’ 1773, p. 262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in ‘Ann. des Sc. Nat.’ 3rd series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 119.
78 ‘On the Origin of Language,’ by H. Wedgwood, 1866. ‘Chapters on Language,’ by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, 1865. These works are most interesting. See also ‘De la Phys. et de Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 190. The work on this subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher, has been translated by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title of ‘Darwinism tested by the Science of Language,’ 1869.
79 Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 169. With respect to savages, I have given some facts in my ‘Journal of Researches,’ &c., 1845, p. 206.
80 See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.
81 See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, ‘The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 199.
82 Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance, 'Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,’ by Dr. Abercrombie, 1838, p. 150.
83 ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 6.
84 See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, ‘The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 1808, p. 199.
85 Macgillivray, ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. ii. 1839, p. 29. An excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the magpie learns to pronounce single words, and even short sentences, more readily than almost any other British bird; yet, as he adds, after long and closely investigating its habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature, display any unusual capacity for imitation. ‘Researches in Zoology,’ 1834, p. 158.
86 See the very interesting parallelism between the development of speech and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in ‘The Geolog. Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,’ 1863, chap. xxiii.
87 See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an interesting article, entitled “Philology and Darwinism” in ‘Nature,’ March 24th, 1870, p. 528.
88 ‘Nature,’ Jan. 6th, 1870, p. 257.
89 Quoted by C. S. Wake, ‘Chapters on Man,’ 1868, p. 101.
90 Buckland, ‘Bridgewater Treatise,’ p. 411.
91 See some good remarks on the simplification of languages, by Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 278.
92 ‘Conférences sur la Théorie Da
rwinienne,’ French translat., 1869, p. 132.
93 The Rev. Dr. J. M’Cann, ‘Anti-Darwinism,’ 1869, p. 13.
94 ‘The Spectator,’ Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.
95 See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in the ‘Anthropological Review,’ Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii. For further facts see Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869. p. 564; and especially the chapters on Religion in his ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870.
96 The Worship of Animals and Plants, in the ‘Fortnightly Review,’ Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.
97 Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 1865, p. 6. See also the three striking chapters on the Development of Religion, in Lubbock’s ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870. In a like manner Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his ingenious essay in the ‘Fortnightly Review’ (May 1st, 1870, p. 535), accounts for the earliest forms of religious belief throughout the world, by man being led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look at himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be powerful, it is propitiated by various gifts and ceremonies, and its aid invoked. He then further shews that names or nicknames given from some animal or other object to the early progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed after a long interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe; and such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist as a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god. Nevertheless I cannot but suspect that there is a still earlier and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or movement is thought to be endowed with some form of life, and with mental faculties analogous to our own.
98 See an able article on the Psychical Elements of Religion, by Mr. L. Owen Pike, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ April, 1870, p. lxiii.
99 ‘Religion, Moral, &c., der Darwin’schen Art-Lehre,’ 1869, s. 53.
100 ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. p. 571. In this work (at p. 553) there will be found an excellent account of the many strange and capricious customs of savages.
101 See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, ‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 21, &c.
102 ‘Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,’ 1837, p. 231, &c.
103 ‘Metaphysics of Ethics,’ translated by J. W. Semple, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.
104 Mr. Bain gives a list (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 543-725) of twenty-six British authors who have written on this subject, and whose names are familiar to every reader; to these, Mr. Bain’s own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr. Shadworth Hodgson, and Sir J. Lubbock, as well as of others, may be added.
105 Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social animal (‘Psychological Enquiries,’ 1854, p. 192), asks the pregnant question, “ought not this to settle the disputed question as to the existence of a moral sense?” Similar ideas have probably occurred to many persons, as they did long ago to Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J. S. Mill speaks, in his celebrated work, ‘Utilitarianism,’ (1864, p. 46), of the social feelings as a “powerful natural sentiment,” and as “the natural basis of sentiment for utilitarian morality;” but on the previous page he says, “if, as is my own belief, the moral feelings are not innate, but acquired, they are not for that reason less natural.” It is with hesitation that I venture to differ from so profound a thinker, but it can hardly be disputed that the social feelings are instinctive or innate in the lower animals; and why should they not be so in man? Mr. Bain (see, for instance, ‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 481) and others believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual during his lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is at least extremely improbable.
106 ‘Die Darwin’sche Theorie,’ s. 101.
107 Mr. R. Browne in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 409.
108 Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case of the monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54. With respect to the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is given (s. 76) on the evidence of Alvarez, whose observations Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the old male baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the eagle, s. 56.
109 ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ November, 1868, p. 382.
110 Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. p. 446.
111 As quoted by Mr. L. H. Morgan, ‘The American Beaver,’ 1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away by a strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to reach the shore by half a dozen old birds.
112 As Mr. Bain states, “effective aid to a sufferer springs from sympathy proper:” ‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 245.
113 ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 85.
114 ‘De l’Espèce et de la Class.’ 1869, p. 97.
115 ‘Der Darwin’schen Art-Lehre,’ 1869, s. 54.
116 Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 76.
117 See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith’s ‘Theory of Moral Sentiments.’ Also Mr. Bain’s ‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that “sympathy is, indirectly, a source of pleasure to the sympathiser;” and he accounts for this through reciprocity. He remarks that “the person benefited, or others in his stead, may make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the sacrifice.” But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure, in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of almost every other instinct.
118 This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of ‘White’s Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ 1853, p. 204) was first recorded by the illustrious Jenner, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824, and has since been confirmed by several observers, especially by Mr. Blackwall. This latter careful observer examined, late in the autumn, during two years, thirty-six nests; he found that twelve contained young dead birds, five contained eggs on the point of being hatched, and three eggs not nearly hatched. Many birds not yet old enough for a prolonged flight are likewise deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, ‘Researches in Zoology,’ 1834, pp. 108, 118. For some additional evidence, although this is not wanted, see Leroy, ‘Lettres Phil.’ 1802, p. 217.
119 Hume remarks (‘An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,’ edit. of 1751, p. 132), “there seems a necessity for confessing that the happiness and misery of others are not spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of the former ... communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the latter ... throws a melancholy damp over the imagination.”
120 ‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 254.
121 I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian Indians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to betraying the plans of their companions in war (‘Journal of Researches,’ 1845, p. 103).
122 Dr. Prosper Despine, in his ‘Psychologie Naturelle,’ 1868 (tom. i. p. 243; tom ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely destitute of conscience.
123 See an able article in the ‘North British Review,’ 1867, p. 395. See also Mr. W. Bagehot’s articles on the Importance of Obedience and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the ‘Fortnightly Review,’ 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, &c.
124 The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr. Gerland, in his ‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868; but I shall have to recur to the subject of infanticide in a future chapter.
125 See the very interesting discussion on Suicide in Lecky’s ‘History of European Morals,’ vol. i. 1869, p. 223.
126 See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton’s account of the Kaffirs, ‘Anthropological Review,’ 1870, p. xv.
127 Mr. M’Lennan has given ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p. 176, a good collection of facts on this head.
128 Lecky, ‘History of European Morals,’ vol. i. 1869, p. 109.
129 ‘Embassy to China,’ vol. ii. p. 348.
130 See on this subject copious evidenc
e in Chap. vii. of Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870.
131 For instance Lecky, ‘Hist. European Morals,’ vol. i. p. 124.
132 This term is used in an able article in the ‘Westminster Review,’ Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the Greatest Happiness principle, see J. S. Mill, ‘Utilitarianism,’ p. 17.
133 Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in ‘Scientific Opinion,’ Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his ‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 353.