307 ‘Journal of Researches: Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ p. 46.
308 ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1869, p. 574.
309 Translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 431.
310 ‘Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.’ 1868, p. 172-175. See also Broca (translation) in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 410.
311 Dr. Gerland, ‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868, s. 82.
312 Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this statement.
313 See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland’s ‘Medical Notes and Reflections,’ 1839, p. 390.
314 I have collected (‘Journal of Researches, Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject: see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the “breath of civilisation as poisonous to savages.”
315 Sproat, ‘Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p. 284.
316 Bagehot, “Physics and Politics,” ‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1868, p. 455.
317 “On Anthropology,” translation, ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ Jan. 1868, p. 38.
318 ‘The Annals of Rural Bengal,’ 1868, p. 134.
319 ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 95.
320 Pallas, ‘Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,’ 1780, part ii. p. 69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his ‘Beyträge zur Anthropologie,’ 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is given by Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &c.
321 Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, ‘Races of Man,’ 1850, p. 473.
322 See De Quatrefages on this head, ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.
323 Livingstone’s ‘Travels and Researches in S. Africa,’ 1857, p. 338, 329. D’Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ vol. ii. p. 266.
324 See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr. Wells’ views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my ‘Origin of Species.’ Various cases of colour correlated with constitutional peculiarities are given in my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 227, 335.
325 See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, ‘Types of Mankind,’ p. 68.
326 Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical Society, April 20th, 1840, and given in the ‘Athenæum,’ 1840, p. 353.
327 ‘The Plurality of the Human Race’ (translat.), 1864, p. 60.
328 Quatrefages, ‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 205. Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,’ translat. vol. i. 1863, p. 124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his ‘Travels.’
329 In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but I have received no returns. “As several well-marked cases have been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and it being notorious that there is some limited degree of relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated, whether there exists any relation between the colour of the hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained, it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate, might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long succession of generations.”
330 ‘Anthropological Review,’ Jan. 1866, p. xxi.
331 See, for instance, Quatrefages (‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases. Dr. Rolle (‘Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,’ &c., 1865, s. 99) states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by them.
332 Harlan, ‘Medical Researches,’ p. 532. Quatrefages (‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence on this head.
333 See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 429.
334 Mr. Catlin states (‘N. American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about one in ten or twelve of the members of all ages and both sexes have bright silvery grey hair, which is hereditary. Now this hair is as coarse and harsh as that of a horse’s mane, whilst the hair of other colours is fine and soft.
335 On the odour of the skin, Godron, ‘Sur l’Espèce,’ tom. ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, ‘Die Aufgaben der landwirth. Zootechnik,’ 1869, s. 7.
336 Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1810, p. 541. In regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below, I am indebted to Fritz Müller.
337 Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. iii. 1826, p. 309.
338 Even with those of plants in which the sexes are separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the female. Many hermaphrodite plants are, as first shewn by C. K. Sprengel, dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is generally mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there are some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature before the male.
339 I have received information, hereafter to be given, to this effect with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr. Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows weak.
340 On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm, ‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger, ‘Naturgesch.: Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 14, 20. On Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.
341 Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoolog.’ Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir Andrew Smith, ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,’ 1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates’ (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and which are gregarious.
342 Dr. Campbell, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 138. See also an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in ‘Proc. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,’ May, 1868.
343 ‘The Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii. 1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great Bustard, see L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 19, and 182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.
344 The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively (‘Ornamental Poultry,’ 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the guinea-fowl being infertile when more than one female is kept with the same male.
345 Noel Humphreys, ‘River Gardens,’ 1857.
346 Kirby and
Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. iii. 1826, p. 342.
347 One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the rule, as the male has rudimentary wings, and never quits the cell in which it is born, whilst the female has well-developed wings. Audouin believes that the females are impregnated by the males which are born in the same cells with them; but it is much more probable that the females visit other cells, and thus avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter meet with a few exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the female, instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.
348 ‘Essays and Observations,’ edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861, p. 194.
349 Prof. Sachs (‘Lehrbuch der Botanik,’ 1870, s. 633) in speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks, “verhält sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv.”
350 ‘Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ 1867, s. 216-269. The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. 1868, p. 75.
351 ‘Proceedings Royal Soc.’ vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and 524.
352 ‘Proc. Royal Irish Academy,’ vol. x. 1868, p. 123.
353 ‘Massachusetts Medical Soc.’ vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.
354 ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded to, is fully explained.
355 These facts are given on the high authority of a great breeder, Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier’s ‘Poultry Book,’ 1868, p. 158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph, see ‘Variation of Animals,’ &c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii. p. 77.
356 ‘Novæ species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,’ 1778, p. 7. On the transmission of colour by the horse, see ‘Variation of Animals, &c. under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii. p. 71, for a general discussion on Inheritance as limited by Sex.
357 Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,’ 1865, p. 87. Boitard et Corbié, ‘Les Pigeons de Volière,’ &c., 1824, p. 173.
358 References are given in my ‘Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 72.
359 I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I am obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the Cervus alces of N. America, see ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p. 221 and 254; and for the C. Virginianus and strongyloceros of the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in ‘Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sc.’ 1868, p. 13. For Cervus Eldi of Pegu, see Lieut. Beavan, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1867, p. 762.
360 Antilocapra Americana. Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 627.
361 I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in length, at birth. With cattle Youatt says (‘Cattle,’ 1834, p. 277) that the prominence of the frontal bone penetrates the cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over it.
362 I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having made inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of Africa there is a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in the one case observed, a young ram born on Feb. 10th first showed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance the development of the horns occurred at a later period of life, conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in which both sexes are horned.
363 In the common peacock (Pavo cristatus) the male alone possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (P. muticus) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs. Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock; but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of the previous year, belonging to both species, compared on April 23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been informed if any difference in the rate of development had subsequently been observed.
364 In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in the two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been able to discover whether its full development occurs later in life in the males of such species, than in the male of the common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule. With the allied Mergus cucullatus we have, however, a case of this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and have a greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his other more strongly-marked sexual differences in plumage: see Audubon, ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. iii. 1835, p. 249-250.
365 ‘Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,’ 1837, s. 21, 24. For the case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge.’ 1865, p. 87.
366 For full particulars and references on all these points respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 250, 256. In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which have arisen under domestication are described in the same work under the head of each species.
367 ‘Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for 1866.’ In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is given.
368 For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye’s researches, in ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,’ April, 1867, p. 343, 345. For France, the ‘Annuaire pour l’An 1867.’ p. 213.
369 In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, ‘La Loi de Production des Sexes,’ 1863, p. 25.
370 Babbage, ‘Edinburgh Journal of Science,’ 1829, vol. i. p. 88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate children in England, see ‘Report of Registrar-General for 1866,’ p. xv.
371 ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,’ April, 1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks (‘Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,’ 1867, p. xxviii) that “These examples may suffice to shew that, at almost every stage of life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone.”
372 With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the accurate Azara (‘Voyages dans l’Amérique mérid.’ tom. ii. 1809, p. 60, 179), the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to 13.
373 Leuckart in Wagner, ‘Handwörterbuch der Phys.’ B. iv. 1853, s. 774.
374 Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.
375 During the last eleven years a record has been kept of the number of mares which have proved barren or prematurely slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how infertile these highly-nurtured and rather closely-interbred animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were born, and 794 mares failed.
376 I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first called my
attention to the premature deaths of the males,—a statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others. To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for the larger returns on sheep.
377 Bell, ‘History of British Quadrupeds,’ p. 100.
378 ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,’ 1849, pl. 29.
379 Brehm (‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 990) comes to the same conclusion.
380 On the authority of L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 12, 132.
381 ‘Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,’ letter xxix. edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139.
382 Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a match between two experts; and one man caught in a day 62, and another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught by one man in a single day was 70.