CHAPTER XII.
WAR.
The story of the impressment, service and sufferings of Fernando Stevensand his friends are no exaggerations. Well authenticated history showsthat there were thousands of cases similar, and even worse than theirs.The conduct of England was without precedent and unbearable. Their greatneed of men might have been some excuse for impressment of Americans;but there was a spice of hatred in their cruel treatment of theunfortunate sailors.
We read much about the rulers moulding the destiny of the people; but inour republic the people mould the destiny of the rulers. Long before thepresident had dared express a thought of war, there were staid oldwestern farmers, level-headed old fellows, who declared that war wasinevitable. America is not a country to be ruled by one man. The peoplerule it, and every man thinks for himself, so that out of the conflictof opinions the truth is usually reached. Before even the fiery congressof 1812 had taken up the subject of hostilities, the legislatures ofthe several States, urged by their farmer constituency, had byconcurrent resolutions declared in favor of war; but the timidpresident, influenced by his own convictions and the opinions of hiscabinet, still hesitated. Finally a committee of Democrats waited on Mr.Madison and told him plainly, in substance, that the supporters of hisadministration had determined upon war with England, that the patienceof the people had become exhausted at his delay, and that unless adeclaration of war should soon be made, his renomination and re-electionwould probably not be accomplished. The president consented to yield hisown convictions to the will of his political friends. Thus we see thatPresident Madison was not moved through patriotic motives to declare waragainst Great Britain, but from personal ambition. Patriotic motivesfollow personal convictions, be they right or wrong.
On the first of April, 1812, he sent a confidential message to congress,proposing, as a measure preliminary to a declaration of war, the passageof a law laying an embargo upon all commerce with the United States forthe space of sixty days. This was done on the fourth of April, and onthe eighth, Louisiana was admitted into the Union as a State.
At the end of the sixty days embargo, Madison sent a message to congressin which he reviewed the difficulties with Great Britain, portrayed theaggressions of that power, and intimated the necessity of war for themaintenance of the honor and dignity of the republic. The message wasreferred to the committee on foreign relations, when a majority ofthem--John C. Calhoun of South Carolinia, Felix Grundy of Tennessee,John Smillie of Pennsylvania, John A. Harper of New Hampshire, JosephDesha of Kentucky and Seaver of Massachusetts reported, June 3, amanifesto as the basis of a declaration of war. On the next day, a billto that effect, drawn by Attorney-General Pinckney in the following formwas adopted and presented by Mr. Calhoun:
"That war be, and the same is hereby, declared to exist between theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the dependenciesthereof, and the United States of America and their Territories, andthat the president of the United States is hereby authorized to use thewhole land and naval force of the United States to carry the same intoeffect, and to issue to private armed vessels of the United Statescommissions, or letters of marque and general reprisal, in such form ashe shall think proper, and under the seal of the United States, againstthe vessels, goods and effects of the government of the said UnitedKingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the subjects thereof."
Pending these proceedings, congress sat with closed doors. The billpassed the house of representatives by a vote of 75 to 49, and thesenate by 19 to 13. The president's immediate signature made it a law;and two days later, June 19, 1812, Mr. Madison issued a proclamation, inwhich he formally declared war against the offending governmentand people.
Thus began the second war with Great Britain, generally known in theannals of history as the War of 1812, though it was in reality thesecond war for independence. It was the war which establishedindependence beyond the cavil of a doubt and sustained the honor ofthe nation.
Immediate measures were taken by congress to sustain the declaration ofwar. The president was authorized to enlist 25,000 men for the regulararmy, accept 50,000 volunteers and call out 100,000 militia for thedefence of the seacoast. About $3,000,000 were appropriated forthe navy.
There were very few men in the United States trained in the art of warat this time. West Point was in its infancy, having been authorized onlyten years before, and as yet had not been able to accomplish anything.The older officers of the Revolution were already in their graves, andthe younger ones were far advanced in life; yet to the latter alone, thegovernment felt compelled to look for its military leaders. HenryDearborn, a meritorious New Hampshire colonel in the continental army,was commissioned major-general and commander-in-chief. His principalbrigadiers were James Wilkinson, who was on the staff of General Gatesin the capture of Burgoyne, Wade Hampton, who had done good partisanservice with Marion, Sumter, and others in South Carolinia, WilliamHull, who had served as colonel in the old war for independence, andJoseph Bloomfield, who had been a captain in the New Jersey line.
At that time, Hull was a governor of the territory of Michigan.Satisfied that the American navy could not cope with that of GreatBritain, the Americans based their hopes for success largely upon thesupposed dissatisfaction of the inhabitants of Canada and other Britishcolonial possessions on their border. It was believed that the Canadianswould flock to the American standard as soon as it was raised on theirsoil. The American people have always clung to the belief that Canadianswere not loyal to Great Britain. It was the mistake of 1775, it was themistake of 1812, and strange to say Americans still hug the delusion totheir breasts that Canada favors annexation. They have reason for theirbelief only in the doctrine that such an annexation would be in theinterests of Canada, disregarding the stubborn fact that in politicalmatters, prejudices, rather than interests, control.
Canada was then divided into the Upper and Lower Provinces, the formerextending westward from Montreal, along the shores of the St. Lawrenceand Lake Ontario, to Lake Huron and the Detroit River. It included aboutone hundred thousand inhabitants, who were principally the families ofAmerican loyalists, who had been compelled to abandon their homes in theStates at the close of the war of the Revolution, and had since livedunder the fostering care of the British government. They were loyal toGreat Britain from lingering resentment to the Americans, and because ofthe kindness of the English government.
In 1812, George, Prince of Wales, was really the monarch of GreatBritain, for the court physicians had pronounced his father, GeorgeIII., hopelessly insane. Great Britain was waging a tremendous waragainst Napoleon, having just formed an alliance with Russia against theambitious Corsican. England's naval armament on the American stations,Halifax, Newfoundland, Jamaica and the Leeward Islands, then consistedof five ships-of-the-line, nineteen frigates, forty-one brigs andsixteen schooners and some armed vessels on Lakes Ontario and Erie, withseveral others building. The British land forces in the two Canadianprovinces were about seven thousand five hundred, while the number ofCanadian militia did not exceed forty thousand with a frontier of sevenhundred miles to guard.
The governor of Michigan went to Washington City in the winter of 1812and heard the question of the invasion of western Canada discussed. Heinformed the president that the success of such an enterprise dependedon having armed vessels on Lake Erie, with a competent force in thenorthwest to protect the American frontier against the Indians. In thespring, Governor Meigs of Ohio summoned the militia of that State torendezvous at Dayton, to meet the impending danger. Hull accepted thecommission of brigadier, and late in May arrived at Dayton, Ohio, andtook command of the troops at that place. Hull had under him such notedofficers as Colonels Duncan McArthur, James Findlay and Lewis Cass. Withthese forces, he marched to Detroit, through an almost tracklesswilderness. While on the march with about two thousand men, Hull wasinformed of the declaration of war, which news at the same time reachedthe British posts in Canada, and his little army was in imminent peril.The government gave Hu
ll discretionary power for invading Canada.
General Sir Isaac Brock, Lieutenant Governor of upper Canada, was incommand of the British forces. On July 12, 1812, Hull crossed theDetroit River with his whole force and encamped at some unfinished worksat Sandwich, preparatory to an attack on Fort Malden near the presentAmherstburg. From this point, Hull issued a proclamation, promisingprotection to the inhabitants who would remain at home and death to allwho should side with the Indians, then gathering under Tecumseh atMalden. General Proctor was sent to take command at Fort Malden, whileBrock began to assemble a force about him at Fort George. Here he wasjoined by John Brant, son of the great Mohawk chief with one hundredwarriors from Grand River.
By his extreme caution and delay, Hull lost his opportunity to captureFort Malden, which was soon strongly reinforced by British and Indians.Meanwhile, information reached Hull of the fall of the fort on Mackinaw.He also learned that Fort Dearborn at Chicago was invested, while adetachment under Major Van Horne, sent down to the West side of theDetroit River to escort a supply train from Ohio, was attacked by theBritish and Indians, and after a sharp fight defeated. Hull decided toretreat to Detroit. The order was a surprise and disappointment to thearmy, and drew from some of the young officers very harsh remarksconcerning the imbecility and even treachery of General Hull. Sullenlythe army crossed the river, and on the morning of the 8th of Augustencamped under the shelter of Fort Detroit. On the same day ColonelMiller and several hundred men were sent to accomplish what Van Hornehad failed to do. They met and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh and asmall British force near the scene of Van Horne's disaster, and wereabout to press forward to meet the supply party and escort them to camp,when the commander-in-chief recalled them.
On the 13th of August, Gen. Brock, a brave, energetic officer reachedMalden with reinforcements. Aware of the character of Hull, he preparedfor the conquest of Detroit. On the 14th, he planted batteries atSandwich, opposite the fortress of Detroit and demanded its surrender,stating that otherwise he should be unable to restrain the fury of thesavages. Instigated by his officers, Hull answered this by a spiritedrefusal and a declaration that the fort and town would be defended tothe last extremity. The British commenced a cannonade, and Hull wasgreatly distressed at the number of women and children in the fort,exposed to the fire of the enemy. The more charitably inclined historianinterprets his acts as the result of tender regard for the helpless andinnocent, rather than cowardice, especially as his daughter and herlittle children came near being slain by a ricocheting cannon-ball,which almost annihilated a group of officers in front of the door of thehouse in which the mother and her children were. The firing continueduntil next day. The alarm and consternation of General Hull had nowbecome extreme. On the 12th, the field officers, suspecting that thegeneral intended to surrender the fort, had determined on his arrest.This was probably prevented, in consequence of Col. McArthur and Cass,two very active and spirited officers, being detached, on the 13th, withfour hundred men, on a third expedition to the river Raisin.
Early on the morning of the 16th, the British landed at Springwell,three miles below the town, without opposition, and marched up in solidcolumn toward the fort along the river bank. The troops were stronglyposted, and cannon loaded with grape stood on a commanding eminenceready to sweep the advancing columns. The troops, anticipating abrilliant victory, waited in eager expectation the advance of theBritish. What was their disappointment and mortification at the verymoment, when it was thought the British were advancing to certaindestruction, orders were given for them to retire within the fort, andfor the artillery not to fire. Then, the men were ordered to stack theirarms, and, to the astonishment of all, a white flag was suspended fromthe walls, and Hull, panic stricken, surrendered the fortress withouteven stipulating the terms. The surrender included, beside the troops atDetroit, the detachments under Cass and McArthur, and the party underCaptain Brush at the river Raisin. No provision was made for theunfortunate Canadians who had joined General Hull, and several of themwere hung as traitors.
The disgraceful surrender of Detroit, excited universal indignationthroughout the country. When McArthur's sword was demanded, heindignantly broke it, tore the epaulettes from his shoulders and threwhimself upon the ground. When General Hull was exchanged, he was triedby a court-martial, found guilty of cowardice and sentenced to be shot;but, in consequence of his revolutionary services and his advanced age,the president pardoned him. His fair fame, however, has ever since beenblasted with the breath of cowardice.
While General Hull was in Canada, he dispatched Winnemeg, a friendlyIndian, to Captain Heald, the commander of Fort Dearborn, at the smalltrading post of Chicago, with the information of the loss of Mackinaw,and directed him to distribute his stores among the Indians, and returnto Fort Wayne. Captain Heald had ample means of defence; but the orderreceived on the 9th of August left nothing to his discretion. ThePottawatomies, however, having obtained intelligence of the war from arunner sent by Tecumseh, collected, to the number of several hundred,around the fort. Notwithstanding the evident hostile demonstration ofthe Indians, Captain Heald proceeded to obey his superior's orders. Hedistributed his stores among the Indians, excepting what was mostwanted; while liquors and ammunition which they could not take, werethrown into the lake. This act enraged the Pottawatomies. On the 14th,Captain Wells arrived with fifteen friendly Miamies from Fort Wayne.This intrepid warrior, who had been bred among the Indians, hearing thathis friends at Chicago were in danger, had hastened thither to avert thefate, which he knew must ensue to the little garrison, if they evacuatedthe fort; but he was too late; the ammunition and provisions both beinggone, there was no alternative. The next day (August 15th), all beingready, the garrison left the fort with martial music and inmilitary array.
Captain Wells, at the head of the Miamies, led the van, his faceblackened after the manner of the Indians.
The garrison, with loaded arms, followed, and the wagons with thebaggage, the women and children, the sick and the lame closed the rear.The Pottawatomies, about five hundred in number, who had promised toescort them in safety to Fort Wayne, leaving a little space, afterwardfollowed. The party in advance took the beach road. They had no soonerarrived at the sand-hills, which separated the prairie from the beach,about a half mile from the fort, when the Pottawatomies, instead ofcontinuing in the rear of the Americans, left the beach and took to theprairie. The sand-hills intervened and presented a barrier between thePottawatomies and the American and Miami line of march. This divergencehad scarcely been effected, when Captain Wells, who, with the Miamies,was considerably in advance, rode back and exclaimed:
"They are about to attack us; form instantly and charge upon them."
The words had scarcely been uttered, before a volley of musketry frombehind the sand-hills was poured in upon them. The troops were broughtimmediately into line and charged up the bank. One man, a veteran ofseventy, fell as they ascended. The battle at once became general. TheMiamies fled in the outset.
The American troops behaved gallantly. Though few in number, they soldtheir lives as dearly as possible. While the battle was raging, thesurgeon, Doctor Voorhes, who was badly wounded, and whose horse had beenshot under him, approaching Mrs. Helm, the wife of Lieutenant Helm,with his face the picture of dread and despair, asked:
"Do you think they will take our lives? I am badly wounded, but I thinknot mortally. Perhaps we can purchase safety by offering a large reward.Do you think there is any chance?"
"Doctor Voorhes," the brave little woman answered, "let us not waste thefew moments which yet remain, in idle or ill-founded hopes. Our fate isinevitable. We must soon appear at the bar of God. Let us make suchpreparations as are in our power."
"Oh, I cannot die! I am unfit to die! If I had a short time toprepare!--oh, death, how awful!"
At this moment, Ensign Ronan was fighting at a little distance with atall and portly Indian. The former, mortally wounded, was nearly downand struggling desperately on one knee. Mrs. Helm, poin
ting her fingerand directing the attention of the doctor to him, cried:
"Look at that young man; he dies like a soldier!"
"Yes," said the doctor, "but he has no terrors of the future; he is anunbeliever."
A young savage sprang at Mrs. Helm, whose horse had been shot, andraised his tomahawk to strike her. She instantly sprang aside, and theblow intended for her head, fell upon her shoulders. She thereuponseized him around his neck, and, while exerting all her efforts to getpossession of his scalping knife, was seized by another Indian anddragged forcibly from his grasp. The latter bore her, struggling andresisting, toward the lake. Notwithstanding, however, the rapidity withwhich she was hurried along, she recognized, as she passed, the form ofthe unfortunate doctor stretched lifeless on the prairie. She wasplunged into the water and held there, despite her resistance, with astrong hand. It soon became evident, however, that it was not theintention of her captor to drown her, as he took care to keep her headabove the water. Thus reassured, she gave him a careful look andrecognized him, despite his disguise, as "Black Partridge, the whiteman's friend." It was this friendly savage who had warned Captain Healdto beware of the march. Through the interpreter he said:
"Linden birds have been singing in my ears to-day; be careful on themarch you are going to take."
The troops, having fought with desperation until two-thirds of theirnumber were slain, the remainder, twenty-seven in all, borne down by anoverwhelming force, and exhausted by efforts hitherto unequaled, atlength surrendered. They stipulated, however, for their own safety andfor the safety of their remaining women and children. The woundedprisoners, however, in the hurry of the moment were forgotten, and were,therefore, regarded by the Indians as having been excluded.
[ILLUSTRATION: IT SOON BECAME EVIDENT THAT HE DID NOT INTEND TO DROWNHER.]
One of the soldiers' wives, having been told that prisoners taken by theIndians were put to terrible tortures, resolved from the first not tosurrender. When a party of savages approached her, she fought withdesperation, although assured of kind treatment, and, exciting the angerof the Indians, was killed and left on the field. After the surrender,twelve children in one of the baggage wagons were slain by asingle savage.
Mrs. Rebecca Heald, the young captain's wife, like Mrs. Helm was mountedon a horse. She carried a rifle with which she shot a savage dead.During the massacre, an Indian, with the fury of a demon in hiscountenance, advanced to her with his tomahawk raised. She had beenaccustomed to danger and, knowing the temper of the Indians, with greatpresence of mind, looked him in the face and, smiling, said:
"Truly, you will not kill a squaw?"
His arm fell powerless at his side. The conciliating smile of aninnocent female, appealing to the magnanimity of a warrior, reached theheart of the savage and subdued the barbarity of his soul.
Captain Heald and his wife, by the aid and influence of To-pa-na-heeand Kee-po-tah, were put into a bark canoe and paddled by the chief ofthe Pottawatomies and his wife to Mackinaw, three hundred miles distant,along the eastern coast of Lake Michigan, and delivered to the Britishcommander. They were kindly received and afterward sent as prisoners toDetroit, where they were finally exchanged.
Lieutenant Helm was wounded in the action and taken prisoner. He wasafterward taken by some friendly Indians to Au Sable, and from thenceto St. Louis, and was liberated from captivity through the interventionof Mr. Thomas Forsyth, an Indian trader. Mrs. Helm was slightly woundedin the ankle, and had her horse shot from under her, when assailed bythe savage from whom Black Partridge rescued her. After passing throughmany trying scenes and ordeals, she was finally taken to Detroit andsubsequently joined her husband. The soldiers, with their wives andchildren, were dispersed among the Pottawatomies on the Illinois, theWabash and the Rock Rivers, and some were taken to Milwaukee. In thefollowing spring, they were principally collected at Detroit andransomed. A part of them, however, remained in captivity another year,and during that period experienced more kindness than they or theirfriends had expected.
Captain Wells, the intrepid leader of the Miamies, remained with theAmericans after his warriors fled and fell in the massacre. On the spotwhere this massacre occurred a little over two generations ago, nowstands a city, whose growth is one of the marvels in the history of theprogress of our great nation within the present century. It is thecentre of a railway system connecting the East with the West by fullytwelve thousand miles of railroad, all tributary to Chicago; and thatcity, which was only the germ of a small village fifty years ago, nowhas more than a million inhabitants, and is the great grain market ofthe western continent.
On the bloody sands where Captain Heald's small command fought so noblyis now (1893) being held a great international exposition, the "World'sColumbian Exposition" in celebration of the discovery of the New Worldby Columbus.
Thus far, the war with England had not been encouraging to Americans.Within two months from the time of this declaration, the wholenorthwest, excepting Forts Harrison and Wayne in the Indian Territory,were in possession of the enemy. Alarm and astonishment prevailedthroughout the West. The great mass of Indians, ever ready to join thesuccessful party, were flocking to the British; but by the spiritedexertion of the governors of Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, three thousandvolunteers were quickly raised and placed under command of General W.H.Harrison, for the purpose of subduing the Indians and regaining what waslost at Detroit.