riots in, 954
stores in, 936
strikes in, 933–34
unemployment in, 934
workers’ revolt in, 933–34
Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de (1709–85), 14, 80, 82–84, 220, 901
death of, 893
French Revolution and, 84, 938, 940
influence of, 94
in Lespinasse salon, 126
sees need for popular religion, 903
writes a constitution for Poland (1770–70, 482
Mably, Jean Bonnot de, grand provost of Lyons (fl. 1740), 14, 82
Mably family, Rousseau as tutor for, 178
Macaulay, Thomas Babington (1800–59), 246, 725, 785, 793
Macbeth (Shakespeare), 740
Macdonald, Frederika, 5*
Macedo, José Agostinho de (1761–1831), 269–70
Macgregor, James (fl. 1512), 767
Machado de Castro, Joachim (1731–1822), 270
Machault d’ Arnouville, Jean-Baptiste (1701–94), 850
Machiavelli, Niccolò (1460–1527), 251, 548, 766
influence of, 338
law of development and return, 253
Maciejowice, battle of (1794), 491–92
Mackenzie, Henry (1745–1830, 790
Macklin, Charles (1697?–1797), 740
M’ Lehose, Agnes, nee Craig (1759–1840, 776
McLeod, Lady, 831–32
Macpherson, James (1736–96), 559, 567, 764, 767–68, 809
influence in Germany, 518
Madama, Palazzo, 226
Madras: English stronghold at, 58
French siege of, 59
Madrasa-i-Shah-Husein, 420
Madrid, 293,
beautification of, 289–90
cleaning up of, 282
factories in, 288
growth of, 289
merchant guilds in, 289
revolt of (1766), 282
royal palace in, 297
war of liberation in, 307
Maffei, Francesco Scipione di (1675–1755), 220, 228–29
Mafra, Convent of, 261
Magellan, Ferdinand (1480?–1521), 259
magic, 356
Magic Flute, The (Mozart), 376, 528
Magna Carta (1215), 683, 709
Magnasco, Alessandro (1667?–1749), 227
Magyar nobles, 341
Mahmud, Mir of Afghanistan (r. 1717–25), Shah of Persia (r. 1722–25), 418
Mahmud I, Sultan of Turkey (r. 1730–54), 415
Mahomet (Voltaire), 246
Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon; 1135–1204), 637, 642
Maine, Sir Henry (1822–88), 849
Maini, Giovanni Battista (1690–1752), 247
Maintenon, Françoise d’ Aubigné, Marquise de (1635–1719), 453
Mainz, 503
archbishops of, 504–5
in Holy Roman Empire, 341
Jews in, 642
in League of Princes (1785), 362
Maistre, Joseph-Marie de (1753–1821), 725, 890
majas and majos, Spanish, 291
Malachowski, Stanislas (1735–1809), 490
Malagrida, Father Gabriel (1689–1761): arrest of, 265
conflict with Pombal, 265, 267–68
execution of, 267
hatred of, 270
missionary activities in Brazil, 263
Malesherbes, Chrétien-Guillaume de Lamoignon de (1721–94), 92, 98, 178
aids Encyclopédie, 861
Jews and, 642
as minister of Louis XV’s household, 861
reforms of, 144
Rousseau and, 189
Turgot and, 861, 865
Malines, 361
Mallet du Pan, Jacques (1749–1800), 891
Malmesbury, Sir James Harris, 1st Earl of (1746–1820), 500
Malone, Edmund (1741–1812), 835
Malongei, Emerich, 363
Malory, Sir Thomas (fl. 1450), 768
Malouin, Dr. Paul-Jacques (1701–78), 200
Malthus, Thomas R. (1766–1834), 321, 894
Mamonov, Alexis (fl. 1786), 444, 446, 459
Manassah ben Israel (1604–57), 640
Manchester: growth of, 681
industry in, 672
theater in, 740
Mandeville, Bernard (1670?–1733), 770
mandolin, 417
Manger, Heinrich (1728–89), 524
Manila, 62
Manin, Lodovico, Doge of Venice (r. 1789–97), 311
Mann, Sir Horace (1701–86), 792
Mannheim, orchestra in, 525
Man of Feeling, The (Mackenzie), 790
Manon Lescaut (Prévost), 169
Mansfield, William Murray, 1st Earl of (1705–93), 736
Mantua, 245
Manzuoli, Giovanni (b. 1725), 746
Maragha, 418
Marat, Jean-Paul (1743–93), 891, 916
in Panthéon, 110
Maratha tribes, 717
Marcello, Alessandro (1684?–1750?), 233
Marcello, Benedetto (1686–1739), 223, 233, 234, 368
Marchais, Mme. de, 118
Marchionni, Carlo (1702–86), 331
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome (r. 161–180), 496, 800–1
María I (María Francisca), Queen of Portugal (r. 1777–1816), 270–72
Maria Amalia of Austria (d. 1804), Duchess of Ferdinand III of Parma, 846
Maria Amalia of Austria (d. 1759), Queen of Charles III of Spain, 281
María Ana Victoria of Spain (b. 1719), Queen of Joseph I of Portugal, 270, 278
Maria Antonia, Archduchess, see Marie Antoinette, Queen
María Barbara of Portugal (d. 1758), Queen of Ferdinand VI of Spain, 257, 278
Maria Carolina of Austria (1752–1814), Queen of Ferdinand IV of Naples, 315, 346, 846
Maria Christina of Austria, Duchess of Saxe-Teschen (d. 1798), 361–62, 846
Maria Feodorovna, nee Sophia Dorothea Augusta of Württemberg, 2d wife of Paul I of Russia, 377, 462, 468
Mariage de Figaro (Beaumarchais), 403–4, 852, 923–25
María Josefa, Infanta, 305
Maria Josepha, Dauphine of France, see Marie-Josèphe of Saxony
Maria Josepha of Austria, Archduchess (d. 1767), 385–86
Maria Kazimiera (1641–1716), Queen of John I Sobieski of Poland, 256
María Luisa Gabriela of Savoy (1688–1714), Queen of Philip V of Spain, 276
María Luisa of Parma (1751–1819), Queen of Charles IV of Spain, 302
Mariana, Juan de (1536–1624), 177
Maria Stuarda (Alfieri), 338
Maria Theresa, ruler of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia (r. 1740–80), 38–48, 51, 235, 330, 342–54, 942
abilities of, 38–39, 342–43
accession to Austrian throne, 278
ambitions in Italy, 228
attitude toward Church, 343
choice of able ministers, 344
conflicts with Joseph II, 350–54
coregency of, 348–54
death of, 354
delighted by Mozart, 383
Frederick II and, 38–48, 352
Frederick II on, 529–30
Hungarian nobles and, 341
Jews and, 631
Joseph II and, 343, 346, 348–54
Marie Antoinette and, 343, 346, 846–47, 855
morality of, 344
papacy and, 318
partition of Poland and, 483
personality of, 343
Mme. de Pompadour and, 40–42, 45, 56
problems facing, 344–46
reactionary policies of, 343
relations with Frances of Lorraine, 346
response to Gluck’s Orfeo, 369
Seven Years’ War and, 38–48, 56, 61
Turgot’s fall and, 865
upbringing of her children, 346
Marie-Adélaïde of France (Marie-Clotilde-Adélaïde-Xavère; 1759–1802), granddaughter of Louis XV, 111
Marie-Anne of Bavaria (1660–90),
Dauphine of France, 118
Marie Antoinette (Maria Antonia; 1755–93), Queen of Louis XVI of France, 111, 369, 383, 846–48, 850–56, 887, 910, 922
aid to Chamfort, 915
aid to Gluck, 370–71
appearance of, 846, 854, 941
Burke and, 722–23
Calonne ministry and, 945
charity of, 904–5, children of, 855, 941
democratic attitudes of, 905
diamond necklace episode and (1785), 941–43
difficulty in consummating marriage, 847–48, 853–54
Du Barry and, 88, 848
early life and education, 846
execution of, 270, 469, 725
extravagance of, 850–52, 944
fashions set by, 905
faults of, 850–52
first pregnancy of, 855
flight to Varennes, 896
friendships of, 848, 852–53
gaiety of 851
Joseph II and 352–54, 362, 853–54
kindness of Louis XVI to, 851–52
Louis XVI and, 436, 847, 851–52
Maria Theresa and, 343, 346, 846–47, 855
marriage to Louis XVI, 244, 847
Necker’s second ministry and (1788–89), 948
nicknamed “L’ Autrichienne” and “Madame Deficit,” 941
personality of, 846, 848, 850–51, 855–56
popular hostility toward, 851, 853, 941
pretensions to naturalism, 852
States-General and, 961
theatricals of, 101
Turgot and, 863–65
Voltaire and, 873–75
Marie-Josèphe of Saxony (1731–67), Dauphine of France, 45, 48, 107, 845
Marie Leszczinska (1703–68), Queen of Louis XV of France, 86, 384
Marignac, Émilie de, 952
Marigny, Abel Poisson, Marquis de (1727–81), brother of Mme. de Pompadour, 105, 114
Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblal de (1688–1763), 15, 104
Marmontel, Jean-François (1723–99), 24, 27, 102, 104–106, 108, 119–20, 149–50, 353, 371, 463, 656, 908
on d’ Alembert’s poverty, 126
on Mme. Geoffrin’s piety, 121
Julie de Lespinasse and, 126–27
on Suzanne Necker, 908
opposition to Revolution, 898
Rousseau meets, 18
as supporter of Puccini, 372
visits ill Voltaire, 875, 876
marriage: in Austria, 348
in England, 731
in France, 97
in Italy, 218–19, 230
Rousseau’s views on, 152, 186–87
in Spain, 290–91
Voltaire’s views on, 146–47
Marriage of Figaro, The (Beaumarchais), 403–4, 852, 923–25
Marriage of Figaro, The (Mozart), 376, 388, 403–4
Marseilles: bread riot in, 954
factories in, 70
proletariat in, 933
shipbuilding in, 932
Marsilius of Padua (1290?–1343?), 177
Martel, Charles, see Charles Martel
Martin, Samuel (fl. 1763), 703
Martínez, Sebastián (fl. 1792), 302
Martini, Anton von (fl. 1780), 355
Martini, Padre Giovanni Battista (1706–84), 220, 245, 255, 386, 426
Martinique, 58, 89, 935
restored to France, 62
Martín y Solar (later Martini), Vicente (1754–1806), 292
Martos, Ivan Petrovich (1752–1835), 467
Marx, Karl (1818–83), 771, 880
Rousseau’s influence on, 3, 891
Mary II, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (r. 1689–94), 683
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (r. 1542–67), 338, 602, 766
Maskelyne, Nevil (1732–81), 764
Mason, William (1724–97), 809, 841
Massachusetts, conflicts with England, 709
Masson, Frédéric (1847–1923), 444, 469
Matrimonio segreto, 11 (Cimarosa), 335
Mattino, 11 (Parini), 335
Maubert, M. (fl. 1790), 117
Maupeou, René-Nicolas de (1714–92), 89, 93–94, 858
Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698–1759), 139, 427
Maurepas, Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Comte de (1701–81), 858, 864, 925
American Revolution and, 870
death of, 97
dismissal of, 85
opposition to Necker, 870–71
Maximes (Chamfort), 914
Maximes morales et politiques tirées de Té-lémaque (Louis XVI), 845
Maximilian, Archduke (1756–1801), 389
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1493–1519), 560
Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (r. 1745–77), 353, 383, 388, 389
Mazanderan, 419
Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal (1602–61), 119
Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–72), 340
Mazzolini, Signora (d. 1774), 219
Mecca, 415
Mecklenburg, in League of Princes (1785), 362
medical schools, 360
Medici, Anna Maria Ludovica de’ (1667–1743), 228
Medici, Cosimo II and Cosimo III de’, see Cosimo II and Cosimo III
Medici, Prince Ferdinand de’ (1663–1715), 227
Medici, Giovan Gastone de’, see Gian Gastone
Medici, Giuliano de’ (1453–78), 338
Medici, Lorenzo de’ (1449–92), 338, 620
Medici family, 228, 313
medicine, 276
Medina, London banker, 630
Medinaceli, Duke of (fl. 1785), 274
Medmenham Abbey, 809
“Mein Glaube” (Schiller), 595
Meissen, 749
Meissen factories, 523
Meister, Jakob, 893
Mélanges (Ligne), 342
Meléndez, Luis (1716–80), 299
Meléndez Valdés, Juan (1754–1817), 295–96
Melzi, Prince Francesco (fl. 1737), 227, 367
Mémoire justificatif (Gibbon), 800
Mémoire sur l’ impôt (Turgot), 865
Mémoires (Brissot), 88
Mémoires (Grétry), 910
Mémoires d’ un père (Marmontel), 104, 106, 908
Mémoires pour servir à l’ histoire de la maison de Brandebourg (Frederick II), 528
Memoirs (Ali Hazin), 421
Memoirs (Beaumarchais), 921, 923
Memoirs (Carlo Gozzi), 243
Memoirs (Casanova), 219, 322–23
Memoirs (Catherine II of Russia), 433
Memoirs (Mme. d’ Épinay), 26, 159
Memoirs (Gibbon), 766, 795–96, 798, 804
Memoirs (Goldoni), 241, 244
Menander (343?–291? B.C.), 241
Mendel, Menachem (fl. 1725), 637
Mendelssohn, Abraham (1776–1835), 641
Mendelssohn, Dorothea (1764–1839), 641
Mendelssohn, Felix (1809–47), 614–15, 637, 641
Mendelssohn, Fromet, nee Guggenheim, 638
Mendelssohn, Henrietta (1768–1831), 641
Mendelssohn, Moses (1729–86), 507, 637–41, 645
children of, 641
death of, 640
early life and education of, 637
influence of, 640–41
Kant and, 637
Lavater and, 639
Lessing and, 509, 515, 549, 637–38, 640
loyalty to Judaism, 639
marriage to Fromet Guggenheim, 638
pessimism of, 549
philosophical works of, 638–39
spreads Enlightment among Jews, 640
writes Phaidon, 638
writings on Judaism, 640
Mendonça, Francisco de Almada e, see Almada e Mendonça, Francisco
Mengozzi-Colonna, Girolamo (fl. 1750), 238–39
Mengs, Anton Raphael (1728–79), 248–49, 258, 510, 523, 524, 912
artistic authority of, 332
death of, 332
revives classi
cal style, 315
in Spain, 299, 300–1
Winckelmann and, 248–49, 327, 329, 331
Mengs, Margarita, nee Guazzi (d. 1778), 248, 332
Menshikov, Prince Alexander Danilovich (1672–1729), 429
mercantilism, 72, 770
mercenary troops, German, 504
Mercier, Louis-Sébastien (1740–1814), 919
on skepticism of upper classes, 901
Merck, Johann Heinrich (1741–91), 506, 521, 612
Mercure de France, 105, 370, 915
Mercure galant, 915
Mercy d’ Argentau, Count Florimund (1727–94), 847, 851
Merlini, Domenico, 479
Merope (Maffei), 228
Mérope (Voltaire), 143, 228–29
Merry Muses of Caledonia, The, 776
Meslier, Jean (1678–1733), 80
Mesmer, Franz Anton (1734–1815), 645
Mesmes, Marquise de (fl. 1771, 883
Messiah (Handel), 742
Messiah (Haydn), 377, 379
Messiah, The (Klopstock), 517–18
Mesta (wool association), 273, 287–88
metal industry, 932
“Metamorphosis of Animals, The” (Goethe), 617
Metamorphosis of Plants, The (Goethe), 596, 617
Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi; 1698–1782), 223, 239, 254. 333, 368–69, 374, 407
meteorology, Goethe’s contribution to, 615
Methodists, 636, 711, 755, 834
Metternich, Prince Clemens Wenzel von (1773–1859), 366
Meyerbeer, Giacomo (1791–1864), 525
Mezzogiorno, II (Parini), 335
Michel, Claude, see Clodion
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564), 248, 751
Michelet, Jules (1798–1874), 137, 143*, 254, 889
Middle Ages, 809, 895
middle class: in art forms, 113–14
in Austria, 356
in Austrian Netherlands, 362
drama and, 104
in England, 670, 676–77, 680–81, 706
in France, 848–49, 902, 914, 956–61
French Revolution and, 899, 934–31, 939
in Geneva, 143
in Germany, 503
in Italy, 218, 230
love of music, 367
in Naples, 249
physiocrats and, 77
in Poland, 474, 491
in Prussia, 497
in Russia, 423, 455–56
in Scotland, 762
in Spain, 274, 277, 280, 289
Sturm und Drang movement and, 522
in Switzerland, 643
Middleton, Conyers (1683–1750), 792
Mignot, Abbé (nephew of Voltaire), 879
Milan: Austrian control of, 217
Beccaria in, 310
churches in, 224
Goethe in, 589
history and achievements, 226–27
industry in, 218, 312
Jesuit colleges in, 219
library in, 219
prostitution in, 218
theaters in, 220
university in, 219
Mill, James (1773–1836), 739
Mill, John Stuart (1806–73), 738–39