financial policies of, 949
pledges personal fortune to state, 949
policies in States-General, 957–58
prepares meeting of States-General, 949–51
THIRD MINISTRY OF (1789–90), 963
Necker, Suzanne, nee Curchod (1737–94), 103, 107, 118, 126, 353, 656, 797–99, 875
charity of, 905
Gibbon and, 865
marries Jacques Necker, 802, 865
personality and appearance of, 908
salon in Paris (1765), 865, 908
Nedim, Ottoman poet, 412–13
Negapatam, 648
Negroes, 732, 935; see also slavery and slave trade
Nehra, Henriette de (fl. 1784), 953
Nelson, Horatio, Viscount Nelson (1758–1805), 750
Nelson’s Festivals and Fasts, 734
Neuchâtel, 643
Rousseau’s residence near, 191–92
Neue teutsche Merkur, 576
Neues Palais, Potsdam, 523, 524
Neuf Soeurs Lodge, Freemasons, 869, 939
Neumann, Johann Balthasar (1687–1753), 238, 426
Neveu de Rameau, Le (Diderot), 101
Newbery, John (1713–67), 814
Newcastle, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of (1693–1768), 691
Newcastle, growth of, 681
Newcomen, Thomas (1663–1729), 674
“New Doctrine of Motion and Rest” (Kant), 533
Newgate Gaol, 739
New Jerusalem Church, 658
New Marshalsea Prison, 738
newspapers: in Austria, 346
in England, 786
in France, 915
New Testament, 185, 194
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727), 13, 219, 280, 293–94, 532, 616
Newton, John (1725–1807), 811
Newton, Lord, 766
New York, anti-British riots in, 710
New Zealand, 669
Ney, Michel, Maréchal (1769–1815), 606
Nicholas II, Czar of Russia (r. 1894–1917), 468*
Nicolai Klimii Iter subterraneum (Holberg), 650–51
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg (1776–1831), 253, 808
Niemcewicz, Julian Ursyn (1757–1841), 486
Niemetschek, 396
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844–1900), 29*
Nikolai, Christoph Friedrich (1733–1811), 507, 510, 567, 638
Nivernois, Louis-Jules Mancini Mazarini, Duc de (1716–98), 208
Noailles, Maréchal Duc Adrien-Maurice de (1678–1766), 648
Noailles, Vicomte Louis-Marie de (1756–1804), 898, 939
nobility: in Austria, 351
in Austrian Netherlands, 362
Burke’s defense of, 723
in Denmark, 649, 653
in England, 669–70, 684, 732
in France, 84, 280, 849, 850, 863, 872, 898–99, 903–4, 936, 944–48, 956–61
Frederick II’s views on, 497
French Revolution and, 899, 927–30
in Germany, 497, 503, 504
in Hungary, 341
in Italy, 230, 249–50
love of music, 367
Mozart’s disdain for, 393, 401
in Poland, 472–74, 476–77, 480–82, 484–85, 491
in Portugal, 263–65, 268
in Prussia, 497
Rousseau attacks, 17
in Russia, 422, 425, 429–30, 438, 443, 454–56, 470
in Spain, 274, 290
Sturm und Drang movement and, 522
in Sweden, 654–55, 657, 663–64
noble savage, legend of, 31
Nollekens, Joseph (1737–1823), 750, 817
Noot, Henri van den (1750–1827), 364
Nordenflycht, Hedvig (1718–63), 659–60
Normandy, bread riots in, 934
North, Frederick, Lord, 2d Earl of Guilford (1732–92), 700–1, 794, 803
American Revolution and, 711, 713–14
Irish policies of, 761
ministry of, 700–1, 706, 710–14, 761
ministry with Fox, 715, 718
on parliamentary debates, 701*
policies toward American colonies, 710–11
policy toward Catholics, 735
policy toward India, 716
resignation from government, 714
North Briton, The, 702–3, 705, 786
Norway, population of, 649
Notebook (Boswell), 841
Notes on Russian History (Catherine II), 463
Notte, La (Parini), 335
Nottingham, theater in, 740
Nouveaux Essais sur l’ entendement humain (Leibniz), 534
Nouvelle Héloïse, La (Rousseau), see Julie, ou La Nouvelle Héloïse
Nouvelles de la république des lettres, 253–54
Nouvelles littéraires, 34
novel, development of, 842
Noverre, Jean-Georges (1727–1810), 100, 255, 368
Novikov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1744–1818), 464–65, 469
Nozze di Figaro, Le (Mozart), 404
Nugent, Dr. Christopher (d. 1775), 827
Nuits de Paris, Les (Restif de La Bretonne), 903, 919
Nuncomar (d. 1775), 717
nunneries: in Austria, 343, 358–59
in France, 900
in Russia, 452
Nuri-Osmanieh, mosque of, 414
Nymphenburg, 523
Nystad, Peace of (1721), 653
Oberkirch, Henriette-Louise, Baroness d’, 908
Oberon (Wieland), 576
Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (Kant), 534
Observations sur le gouvernement … des Étatsunis d’ Amérique (Mably), 903
Ochakov, 415, 430
siege of, 460
Ochs, Peter (fl. 1797), 645
Oehlenschläger, Adam Gottlob (1779–1850), 650
“Ode by Samuel Johnson to Mrs. Thrale upon Their Supposed Nuptials” (Boswell), 837
Ode to Joy (Schiller), 574–75
“Ode to the Duty” (Derghavin), 464
Oder River, 356
Odessa, 459
Odoardo II Farnese, Duke of Parma, 276
Oeben, Jean-François (1685–1765), 107
Oedipe a Colone (Sacchini), 334
Oedipus (Sophocles), 604
Oeser, Adam Friedrich (1717–99), 523, 557
Oeuvres du philosophe de Sans-Souci (Frederick the Great), 59
Ohio River Valley, French control of, 57
O Hissope (Cruz e Silva), 269
Olavide, Pablo (1726–1803), 280, 285–86, 288
Old Believers, 438, 455
Old Pretender, see Stuart, James Francis Edward
Old Testament: Rousseau and, 185
Voltaire’s attitude toward, 150
Oldenburg, Duke of, 523
Oleg (Catherine II), 463
oligarchies: in Holland, 142
in Switzerland, 142
Olimpiade (Metastasio), 333
Olimpiade, L ’ (Pergolesi), 256
Oliva, “Baronne” d’ (fl. 1785), 942–43
“Olney Hymns” (Cowper), 811
“O my luve’s like a red, red rose” (Burns), 777
“On Cannibals” (Montaigne), 23
On Ecclesiastical and Civil Tolerance (Tamburini), 316
On Grace and Dignity (Schiller), 594
On Grace in Works of Art (Winckelmann), 328
“On Instructions of Her Imperial Majesty … for the Drawing up of Laws” (Diderot), 448
Only Possible Ground for Proving the Existence of God, The (Kant), 534
On Mendelssohn and the Political Reform of the Jews (Mirabeau), 642
On Music (Iriarte y Oropesa), 295
Onslow, Col. George, later 1st Earl of Onslow (1731–1814), 706–7
Ontario, Lake, French control of, 58
“On the Contest Between the Good and Evil Principles for the Control of Man” (Kant), 545
“On the Effects of Poetry upon the Customs and Morals of the Nations” (Herde
r), 577–78
On the Failure of All Philosophical Attempts at Theodicy (Kant), 544
“On the Power of the Mind to Master the Feeling of Illness by Force of Resolution” (Kant), 549
“On the Spirit of Hebrew Poetry” (Herder), 578
On the Teachings of Spinoza (Jacobi), 565
O Oriente (Macedo), 269–70
opera, 923
in Austria, 367–73, 376, 379–80
in England, 223–24, 746
in France, 25–26, 99, 256, 909–10
in Germany, 223–24, 525, 527–28
Gluck’s reforms in, 368–70
influence of Italian, 224
in Italy, 222–24, 254–56, 333–35
melody versus action in, 335
origins of, 224
poetry and, 223
Rousseau’s definition of, 26
in Russia, 425, 466
in Spain, 292
opera buffa, 100, 223, 255, 367
Opéra-Comique, establishment of, 100
opera seria, 100, 255, 367
Opie, Amelia (1769–1853), 787
opium, 729
Oppenheimer, Joseph (1692?–1738), 634
Opticks (Newton), 219, 616
optics, Goethe’s work on, 615–16
Opus postumum (Kant), 549–50
oratory: English, 707
French, 99
orchestras, 525–26
Orfeo ed Euridice, libretto (Calzabigi), 369
Orfeo ed Euridice (Gluck), 368–69, 371, 373, 909
Orford, Margaret Walpole, Countess of, 328
Origin of Species (Darwin), 889
Orléans, Louis, Duc d’ (1703–52), 17
Orléans, Louise-Marie de Bourbon-Penthièvre, Duchesse d’ (1753–1821), 955
Orléans, Louis-Philippe, Duc d’ (1725–85), 94, 123, 850
Orléans, Louis-Philippe-Joseph (“Philippe-Égalité), Duc d’ (1747–93), 898, 962
aid to revolutionaries, 955–56
early life, 955
exiled by Louis XVI, 946
as Freemason, 939
liberalism of, 957
marriage, 955
in States General, 960
Orléans, Philippe II, Duc d’, Regent of France (r. 1715–23), 90, 277, 906, 955
Orléans, factories in, 932
Orlov, Alexei Grigorievich (1737–1809), 439, 458
aids Catherine II coup, 439–40
in death of Peter III, 442
Orlov, Feodor Grigorievich (1741–90), 439
Orlov, Grigori Grigorievich (1734–83), 437, 457, 468
aids Catherine’s coup, 439–40
arrests Choglokov, 443–44
as Catherine’s lover, 442, 445
Catherine’s rewards, 442
policies of, 445
Orphan of China (Voltaire), 103
Orpheus, 253
Orry, Jean (1652–1719), 277
Orsini-Rosenberg, Count Franz (1723–96), 395
Os Burros (Macedo), 270
Osorio de Zuñiga, Don Manuel, 305
ospedali singers, 232
Ossian, The Works of (Macpherson), 559, 567, 767–68, 809
Ossory, Lord (fl. 1765), 209
Ostend, 361
Ostermann, Count Andrei Ivanovich (1686–1747), 429–31
Osuna, Duchess of, 291
Osuna, Duke of, 274, 301
Oswego, Fort, capture of (1756), 58
Othello (Shakespeare), 511
Ottoboni, Pietro, Cardinal (fl. 1708), 256
Ottoman Turks, 411, 414; see also Turkey
Otway, Thomas (1652–85), 741
Oudh, begums of, 718, 720
Oudh, Nawab of, 718
Oudry, Jean-Baptiste (1689–1755), 120
“Outline and Announcement of a Course of Lectures on Physical Geography” (Kant), 533
Oxford Symphony (Haydn), 377, 381
Pacassi, Niccolo (1716–90), 345
Pacchierotti, Gasparo (1744–1821), 333
Pacte de Famille (1761), 60, 76, 89
“Pacte de Famine,” 76
Padua, 220, 229
theaters in, 220
university in, 219
Paestum, Greek temples of, 248, 327
Paine, Thomas (1737–1809), 340, 725
Rousseau’s influence on, 891
Voltaire’s influence on, 881
painting: bourgeois, 113–114
in England, 750–58, 888
in France, 911–14
in Germany, 523–24
in Holland, 647
in Italy, 227, 235–39, 248, 331–332
neoclassical, 912–13
in Portugal, 261
in Russia, 466–67
in Scotland, 765
in Spain, 298–309
in Sweden, 662
Paisiello, Giovanni (1740–1816), 334, 388, 466
Pajou, Augustin (1730–1809), 106, 107, 109, 911
Palais-Bourbon, 911
Palais de Justice, 910
Palais-Royal, 911, 955
Palatinate, Bavaria united with, 354
Palatine College in Milan, 321
Palermo, 589
university in, 219
witch-burnings in, 316
Palestine, 411
Paley, William (1743–1805), 730, 755
Palissot de Montenoy, Charles (1730–1814), 108, 120
Palladio, Andrea (1518–80), 229, 248, 587, 747
pamphleteering in France, 94, 915 Panckoucke, Charles-Joseph (1736–98), 925
Panin, Nikita Ivanovich (1718–83), 439, 457, 483
Panin, Piotr Ivanovich (1721–89), 455
Pannini, Giuseppe (fl. 1762), 247
Pantalone (comic character), 232, 243
pantaloons, 231
Panthéon, 880
Paoli, Pasquale di (1725–1807), 207, 3l2–13
Boswell and, 782–83
conflicts with French, 313
early life of, 312
French depose, 205
leads rebellion against Genoa, 313
papacy, 310
Austria and, 343
basis of power and influence, 316
conflicts with Catholic monarchs, 317–18
factional conflicts in, 317
Germany and, 504–5
Goethe on, 316
internationalism of, 316
Jesuit expulsions and, 316–18
Jews and, 631
material interests of, 316
Napoleon and, 319
nationalism and, 316
Portugal’s break with, 267
response to Enlightenment, 316
restoration of Jesuit order by, 319
Spanish concordat with, 279
Turkey and, 457
under Clement XIII, 317
under Clement XIV, 317–19
under Pius IV, 319
Papal States, 217
congestion of expelled Jesuits in, 317
Jesuit colleges in, 219
opera houses in, 223
popes and, 246–47
size of, 244; see also papacy
Rome
Papin, Denis (1647–1712), 673
Paradise Lost (Milton), 773, 842
Paradox of the Actor, The (Diderot), 103
Paraguay: communistic practices of Jesuits in, 80, 83, 262
Indian revolt in, 262
Jesuits in, 281, 283
Paret y Alcázar, Luis (1746–99), 299
Paride ed Elena (Gluck), 370
Parini, Giuseppe (1729–99), 335–36
Paris: book trade in, 71
Chamfort on, 915
dirt in, 933
economic activity in, 932–33
great salons in, 118–31
Hôtel-Dieu, 353
hunger in, 71, 860, 933, 961
intellectual life in, 906
key role in French Revolution, 961–63
life in, 15, 71
Louis XVI’s aid to, 857
&nbs
p; morals of, 19, 903
music in, 368, 370–73
population of, 71, 933
press in, 915
proletariat in, 933
revolutionary ferment in, 954–57, 959–62
riots in, 934, 946, 956, 961–63
stores in, 936
theater audience in, 241
wealth of, 71
Paris, Peace of (1763), 62
Paris, Treaty of (1782–83), 648, 714
Paris, Parlement of, 90–91, 353, 849
alliance with nobility, 944
banishments of, 91, 946
burns Émile, 190
conflicts with Brienne, 946–48
conflicts with Louis XV, 93–94
conflicts with Turgot, 861–63
“Declaration of Rights” of (1787), 947
Diamond Necklace Affair and, 943
Diderot’s defense of, 93
orders arrest of Rousseau, 189–90
organization of States General and, 949
prohibits labor unions, 933
Voltaire’s attack on, 92–93
Paris Conservatoire de Musique, 909
Paris-Duverney, Joseph (1684–1770), 920, 922
Paris-Montmartel, Jean (1690–1766), 936
Park, Anna (fl. 1790), 777
parks in England, 748
parlements, 89–95, 928, 930
allegiance to nobility, 949
attack on Cour Plénière (1787), 947–948
authority of, 849
conservatism of, 90, 93
functions of, 90
hatred of Mme. de Pompadour, 67
Louis XV and, 90–95
Louis XVI and, 858, 946–48
as supporters of nobility, 849; see also Paris, Parlement of
Parliament, British, 683–707
buying up of seats in, 670, 685
demands for annual, 704
destruction of machines and, 679
economic policies of, 67
electoral districts and, 684–85
forbids labor unions, 680
George III’s conflict with, 61, 683, 686–88, 693, 697–701
Irish question in, 760–62
parlements compared with, 90
powers of, 686, 709–10
rotten boroughs and, 685, 733
taxation of American colonies and, 709–10
voting procedures in elections of, 685
Parliament, Irish, 760–61
Parma, duchy of, 228, 239, 278
church lands in, 224
expulsion of Jesuits from, 317
Inquisition abolished in, 316
social reforms in, 311–12
Spanish control of, 217
Parma, Duke of: in 1748–65, see Felipe, Duke of Parma; in 1765–1801, see Ferdinand III
Parsons, Nancy, 731–32
Pascal, Blaise (1623–62), 23, 139, 294, 514, 889, 890
Pasch, Johan (1706–69), 662
Pasch, Lorenz, the Elder (1702–66), 662
Pasch, Lorenz, the Younger (1773–1805), 662
Pasch, Ulrica (1735–96), 662
Passek, Lieut. P. B. (fl. 1762), 439
Passerowitz, Treaty of (1718), 415