CHAPTER X.
THE MURDER OF THE GENERALS.
All this time a gloom had been settling down over the Athenian people.The official despatch, which, as giving details of the loss in the lateengagement, was so anxiously expected, did not arrive; but quite enoughinformation to cause a very general anxiety came to hand in variousways. Private letters from men serving with the fleet began to bebrought by merchantships; and not a few persons were found who hadtalked or who professed to have talked with sailors and marines who hadtaken part in the action. These written and oral accounts were indeedfar from being consistent with each other. Some were obviouslyimpossible; more were presumably exaggerated. But they were all agreedin one point. Not only had there been a serious loss of ships and menduring the battle, but this loss had been grievously aggravated by thecasualties that had taken place after the battle. It was pretty clear,unless the whole of these stories were fictitious, that the second losshad been more fatal than the first.
At last the long expected despatch arrived. It ran somewhat in thisfashion:
"The victory which, by the favor of the gods and the good fortune of theAthenian people, we lately won over the Spartans and their allies atthe Islands of Arginusae has turned out to be no less important andbeneficial to the state than we had hoped it would be. The squadron ofthe enemy that was blockading the harbor of Mitylene has disappeared:nor indeed are any of his ships anywhere to be seen. Our fleet, on thecontrary, is stronger than it has been for some years past; and we aredaily receiving overtures of friendship from cities that have hithertobeen indifferent or hostile. But this success has not been achievedwithout loss. The late battle was long and obstinately contested, and,as has been mentioned in a former despatch, not a few of our ships wereeither disabled or sunk. We did not neglect the duty of succoring thecrews of the vessels that had met with this ill-fortune, committing toofficers whom we knew to be competent, the task of giving such help andassigning to them a sufficient number of ships. At the same time we didnot omit to make provision for a pursuit of the enemy. But unluckilywhen the battle was but just finished, a storm arose so severe that wecould not either rescue our friends or pursue our enemy. These thenescaped, and those, or the greater part of them perished, having behavedas brave men toward their country. Lists of those that have so died, sofar as their names are at present known, are sent herewith."
In this official communication, it will be seen, no blame was laid onany person. The weather, and the weather alone, was given as the causeof the disaster that had occurred. But in their private communicationswith friends at home the generals were not so reticent. They hadcommissioned, they said, Theramenes and Thrasybulus to save theshipwrecked men. If all that was possible had not been done to executethis commission it was they and they only who were to be blamed. Suchwords, even if they are intended only for the private reading of thepeople to whom they are written, seldom fail sooner or later to get out.In this case so many people were profoundly and personally interested inthe matter that they got out very soon. And, of course, among the firstpersons whom they reached were the two incriminated officers, Theramenesand Thrasybulus. It was a charge, hinted at if not exactly made, whichno man would allow to be made against him without at least an attempt torefute it. Theramenes, who had come back on leave not many days afterthe battle, at once bestirred himself in his own defense. He was an ablespeaker, all the more able because he was utterly unscrupulous; and hehad a large following of personal friends and partisans. On the presentoccasion he was reinforced by the many citizens who had lost relativesor friends in the late engagement. These were furious and not withoutsome cause. What had been at first represented as a great victory had atlength turned out to be as fatal as a great defeat. They loudly demandeda victim. Somebody, they said, must be punished for so scandalous, sodeadly a neglect. Theramenes had the advantage of being on the spot, andof being able to guide these feelings in a way that suited his ownpersonal interests. "I was commissioned," he said, "to do the work; I donot deny it. But the charge was given me when it was almost too late toexecute it, and I hadn't the proper means at hand. I could not get holdof the ships that were told off for this task, or of the crews whoshould have manned them. If one of the ten had come himself to help me,things might have been different. As it was, the men either could not befound, or refused to come. A subordinate must not be blamed for failingin what ought to have been undertaken by a chief in command."
These representations, in which, as has been seen, there was a certainmeasure of truth, had a great effect. An assembly was held to considerthe contents of the second despatch, and at this it was resolved, withscarcely an opposing voice, that the generals should be recalled. Theywere publicly thanked for the victory which they had won, but they weresuspended, at least for the present, in their command, and successorswere sent out to replace them. Conon, as having been shut up at the timein Mitylene, and being therefore manifestly clear of all blame in thematter, was continued in office, and another of the ten had died. Eight,therefore, were left to be affected by the decree. Of these eight twodetermined not to run the risk of returning; the other six sailed atonce for home. Of these six Diomedon, about whom something has been saidalready, was one.
As soon as was practicable after their arrival at Athens, an assemblywas held and they were called upon for their defence. The chief speakeragainst them was Theramenes. His colleague, Thrasybulus, stood byapparently approving by his presence the charge that was brought but notopening his mouth. One man among the accused men might have easilysecured his own safety at the expense of his colleagues. If Diomedon hadstood up and recapitulated the advice which he had given in the councilheld after the battle; if he had affirmed what none of his fellowswould have been able to deny, "I urged you to make the rescue of theimperilled crews your first business, to use for it all the means atyour disposal, and to undertake it yourselves," he must have beentriumphantly acquitted, but he was of too generous a temper thus to savehimself. He chose to stand or fall with his fellows. All, accordingly,put forward the same defence, and it was in substance this: "We did whatseemed best in our judgment. We detailed for the duty of saving thecrews what we considered to be an adequate force, and put over it menwhom we knew to be competent. If Theramenes accuses us, we do not accusehim. We believe that he was hindered from doing the duty intrusted tohim by the storm, and that if he had had double the number of ships,even the whole fleet, at his disposal, he would have been no lesspowerless to give the shipwrecked men any effectual help."
There was a sincerity of tone about their defense which was just thething to win favor of such an audience as the Athenian assembly. Therewere murmurs indeed. The friends and kinsfolk of the drowned men couldnot endure to think that no one would be punished for what they believedto be a shameful neglect. But the general applause drowned thedissenting voices, and the friends of the accused began to hope thatthey were safe. If there had been only a few more minutes of daylight,such might have been the result. A show of hands was taken by thepresiding magistrate, and it was believed to be in favor of the accused,but it was too dark to count; no regular decision could be made; and thematter had to be adjourned to another meeting of the assembly.
But now came another change in the impulsive, passionate temper of thepeople. The next day or the next day but one was the first of the greatfamily festival of Athens, the Apaturia, a celebration something likethe Christmas Day or the New Year's Day of the modern world. It was oneof the most cherished, as it was one of the most ancient of the nationalfestivals. All the great Ionic race, with scarcely an exception, keptit, and had kept it from times running back far beyond history. Thefamily annals were now, so to speak, made up, and consecrated by asolemn association with the past. If a marriage had been celebrated inthe family during the year it was now formally registered; if a son ofthe house had reached his majority his name was now entered upon theroll. These formalities were duly marked by customary sacrificing andsacrifices were accompanied, as always in the ancient world, b
yfestivities. But family festivities are apt, as most of us know only toowell, to be marred by melancholy associations. It is delightful to greetthose that remain, but what of those who are gone? And so it had beenyear after year, since the day when Athens embarked on the fatal warwhich for nearly thirty years drained her resources. So it was, in aspecial way, in the year of which I am writing. The men whom Athens hadlost were not hired servants but sons. Every one, the slaves onlyexcepted, left an empty place in some family gathering. And now for thefirst time the city realized the greatness of her loss. The numbers hadbeen known before; but numbers, however startling, do not impress themind like visible facts, and now the visible facts were before the eyesof all. The streets were filled with men and women in mourning garb,for the families which had suffered individually assumed it. It seemedas if almost every passer by had lost a kinsman. There could scarcelyhave been any such proportion of mourners, but any uniform garb rendersthe impression of being much more numerously worn than is really thecase.
And there can be but little doubt that the demonstration was purposelyexaggerated. For now came in the sinister influence of political strife,which since the oligarchical revolution of five years before had grownmore than ever bitter and intense. The accused leaders belonged to theparty of moderate aristocrats; a party loyal to the democraticconstitution of Athens, but disposed to interpret its provisions in aconservative sense. The oligarchy hated them, and Theramenes had been anoligarchical conspirator before, and was about to be again. And theextremists on the other side hated them. Between the two a plot wasconcocted. Men who had no kinsfolk among the lost soldiers and sailorswere bribed or otherwise persuaded to behave as if they had,[36] to comeinto the streets with black clothes and shaven heads, and to swell thenumbers of the mourners, thus increasing the popular excitement.
Strangely enough it was the senate, the upper chamber of the Athenianconstitution that first gave this excitement an expression. At the firstmeeting after the festival, Callixenus, a creature of Theramenes--theman himself was probably too notorious to take an active part--proposeda resolution which ran as follows:
"For as much as both the parties in this case, to wit, the prosecutor,on the one hand, and the accused, on the other were heard in the lateassembly, it seems good to us that the Athenian people now vote on thematter by their tribes, there being provided for each tribe two urns,and that the public crier make proclamation as follows in the hearing ofeach tribe: 'Let every one who finds the generals guilty of not rescuingthe heroes of the late sea fight deposit his vote in Urn No. 1. Let himwho is of the contrary opinion deposit his vote in Urn No. 2.'Furthermore it seems good to us, that, if the aforesaid generals befound guilty, death should be the penalty; that they should be handedover to the Eleven,[37] and their property confiscated to the state,excepting a tenth part, which falls to the goddess [Athene]."
The Senate passed this resolution, though there was a strong minoritythat protested against it. The assembly was held next day, andCallixenus came forward again and proposed his resolution as havingreceived the senate's sanction.
It was received with a roar of approval from the majority. But therewere some honest men who were not inclined to sanction a proceeding sogrossly illegal, for such indeed it was. One of them, Euryptolemus byname, rose in his place, and spoke:
"There is an enactment which for many years has been observed by thepeople of Athens for the due protection of persons accused of crime. Bythis enactment it is provided that every person so accused shall betried separately, and shall have proper time allowed him for thepreparation of his defence. Seeing then that the resolution justproposed to the assembly contravenes this enactment by providing thatthe accused persons should be tried altogether and without suchallowance of due time, I hereby give notice that I shall indictCallixenus its proposer for unconstitutional action."
A tremendous uproar followed the utterance of these words. "Who shallhinder us from avenging the dead?" cried one man. "Shall this pedantwith his indictment stand between the Athenian people and their desireto do justice?" shouted another. But the excitement rose to its heightwhen a man clad as a mariner forced his way through the crowded meeting,and struggled by the help of his companions into the _Bema_, theplatform or hustings of the place of assembly.
It was a strange figure to stand in that place from which some of thefamous orators and statesmen of the world had addressed theircountrymen. He was evidently of the lowest rank. His dress was raggedand soiled. His voice, when he spoke, was rough and uncultured. Yet notPericles himself who so often speaking from that place
"Had swayed at will that fierce democracy,"
ever spoke with more effect.
"Men of Athens," he cried, "I was on the _Cheiron_. I was run down by aCorinthian ship just before the battle came to an end. The _Cheiron_sank immediately; I went down with her, but managed to get free, andcame up again to the surface of the water. I saw a meal-tub floating byme, and caught hold of it. Some ten or twelve men were near me. Theykept themselves up for a time by swimming, but sank one by one. I spoketo several of them, and bade them keep up their spirits, because theadmirals would be sure to rescue us. No help came. At last only one wasleft. He was my brother-in-law. I made him lay hold of the other side ofthe meal-tub; but it was not big enough to keep us both up. He let go ofit again. He said to me 'Agathon'--that is my name--'you have a wife andchildren; I am alone. Bid them remember me; and tell the men of Athensthat we have done our best in fighting for our country, and that theadmirals have left us to perish.'"
Was the man telling the truth, or was he one of those historic liarsthat have made themselves famous or infamous for all time by themagnitude of the fictions that they have invented just at the criticaltime when men were most ready to accept them.[38]
Whether it was true or false, the story roused the people to absolutefury. Thousands stood up in their places and shook their fists at theaccused, and at the orators who had spoken in their favor, while theyscreamed at the top of their voices, "Death to the generals! death tothe murderers!"
A momentary silence fell upon the excited crowd when a well-known oratorof the intense democratic party threw himself into the hustings.
"I propose that the names of Euryptolemus and of all those who havegiven notice of the indicting Callixenus be added to the names of theaccused generals, and be voted upon in the same way for life and death."
The speaker added no arguments; and the roars of approval that went upfrom the assembly showed sufficiently that no arguments were needed. Theadvocates of constitutional practice were cowed. It was only too plainthat to persist would surely be to meet themselves the fate of theaccused. Euryptolemus was a brave man, and as we shall soon see, did notintend to desert his friends; but for the present he gave way. "Iwithdraw my notice," he cried, reflecting doubtless that he could renewit when the people should become more ready to listen to reason andjustice. But there was still another constitutional bulwark to be throwndown. The presiding magistrates refused to put the motion to theassembly. Their chief (or chairman as we should call him) rose in hisplace. He was pale and agitated, and his voice could not be heard beyondthe benches nearest to him when he said, "The motion of Callixenus isagainst the laws, and we cannot put it to the assembly."
"They refuse! they refuse!" was the cry that went from mouth to mouth.Again the rage of the multitude rose to boiling point, and again thepopular orator saw his opportunity.
"I propose," he said, appearing again in the hustings, "that the namesof the presiding magistrates be added to those of the accused in thevoting for life and death."
A shout of approval more vehement than ever greeted this announcement.Once more the policy of concession, or shall we say of cowardiceprevailed. The magistrates conversed a few moments in hurried whispers,and then advanced to the railings in front of their seats. It wasimmediately seen that they had yielded, and loud applause followed."Hail to the popular magistrates! Hail to the friends of the people!"was the universal cry. But one wa
s still sitting in his place. Hiscolleagues turned back to bring him. They talked, they gesticulated,they laid hold of him by the arms; they were trying to force him out ofhis seat. He heeded them not; to all persuasion he returned the sameanswer: "I am set to administer the laws, and will do nothing that iscontrary to them." The most of the house could, of course, hear nothingof what was being said; but they could see plainly what had happened."Socrates refuses! Socrates refuses!" was now the cry, followed byshouts of "Death to Socrates!" "Death to the blasphemer! death to theatheist!"
The philosopher sat unmoved, and his colleagues made no further attemptto persuade him. They took what was, perhaps, the only possible courseunder the circumstances--for they had not all the martyr-like temper ofSocrates--and put the question without him. It was carried by a largemajority.
The presiding magistrate, having announced the result of the vote, wenton: "Seeing that it has seemed good to the Athenian people to try thegenerals accused of negligence in saving the lives of citizens, the saidgenerals are hereby put upon their trial. If they, or any citizen ontheir behalf, wish to address the assembly, let them or him speak."
It might have been thought that the furious crowd which had been readyto overpower with violence the advocates of constitutional practicewould have howled down any who dared to advocate so unpopular a cause.But it was not so. The majority, having swept away, as they thought,the trammels of technicality, in their eagerness for justice, had nowish to disregard justice by refusing a hearing to persons on theirdefense. Whatever the faults of the Athenian democracy, it was at leastready to hear both sides. When therefore Euryptolemus rose to addressthe assembly on behalf of the generals, an instantaneous silencefollowed; nor was he interrupted during the delivery of his speechexcept, it may be, by occasional murmurs of approval. He spoke asfollows:
"Men of Athens, I have three things to do now that I address you. First,I have to blame in some degree my dear friend and kinsman Pericles, andmy friend Diomedon; second, I have to plead somewhat on their behalf;third, I have to give you such advice as will in my judgment bestadvantage Athens. I blame them because they, through their generoustemper, have taken upon themselves the fault which, if it exists, liesupon others. For indeed what happened after the battle was this:Diomedon advised that the whole fleet should proceed to the relief ofthe disabled ships and their crews. Herasinides counselled that thewhole fleet should be sent in pursuit of the enemy. Meranylus declaredthat both duties might be discharged together, part being sent againstthe enemy, and part to help the shipwrecked men. And this last coursewas actually taken. Forty-seven ships were told off for this duty.Three, that is, from each of the eight divisions, ten belong to privatecaptains, ten that were from Samos, and three that belonged to thecommander-in-chief. And three ships were committed to the charge ofThrasybulus and Theramenes, the very men who now bring these chargesagainst the accused. Yet these men I do not even now, on behalf of thegenerals, myself accuse. I allow that the violence of the stormprevented them from executing this order which had been given them.
"So far then, men of Athens, do I blame the accused, and I do plead forthem. And now let me venture to give you some advice. Give these mentime, if it be but one day only, to make their defence. You know thatthere is yet a form of law by which it is enacted: 'If any person hathaggrieved the people of Athens, he shall be imprisoned and brought to atrial before the people; and in case he be convicted, he shall be put todeath and thrown into the pit, his goods and chattels to be confiscatedto the state, reserving a tenth part for the goddess.' By this law trythe accused. Give to each a separate day and try them in due order. Sowill you judge them according to the law, and not seem, as verily youwill seem if you adopt the resolution of Callixenus, to be allies of theLacedaemonians, by putting to death the very men who have taken twenty oftheir ships.
"Why indeed are you in such vehement haste? Are you afraid to lose yourhold of life and death? That right no one doubts or threatens. Shouldyou not rather be afraid lest you put an innocent man to death? One mando I say, nay many innocent men? And lest, afterwards repenting of yourdeed, you shall reflect how ill and unjustly you have acted? Forbid it,ye gods, that the Athenians should do any such thing. Take care,therefore, I implore you, that you, being successful, do not act as theyoften act, who are on the brink of despair and ruin. Only those who arewithout hope insult the gods; yet somehow you will insult them, ifinstead of submitting to them on points that are subject to their willalone, you condemn those men who failed because it was the pleasure ofthe gods that they should fail. You would do more justly if you honorthese men with crowns of victory rather than visit them with thispunishment of death."
A visible effect was produced by this speech. That the republic shouldput to death its successful generals almost in the moment of victoryseemed to many to be the very height of folly, even of impiety. The godshad favored these men. To lay hands upon them would be an insult toheaven. But supposing they had erred, would it be well for the state todeprive itself of the services of its most skillful servants? Thisseemed the common sense view. The question was: would it prevail againstthe sticklers for law, those who were hardened by the sense of personalloss, and the unscrupulous partisans who were ready to seize any pretextfor destroying political opponents? The voters filed past the ballotingurns, and dropped their votes as they passed. No one could guess whatthe result would be, for no one could watch more than one of the tenpairs of urns--a pair to each tribe--which were placed to receive thesuffrages. The process took no little time, and then when it wasfinished, there was the counting, also a long and tedious process. Itwas almost dark when the tables were finished.
In the midst of a profound silence the presiding magistrate stood up. Itwas now dark, and his figure was thrown into striking relief by thelamps with the help of which the votes had been counted. He read thenumbers from a small slip of paper.[39] "There have voted," he said,"for condemnation 3254, for acquittal 3102."
The sensation produced by the announcement was intense. Not a few whohad voted 'guilty' already half repented of what they had done. Indeedthe reaction which ended in the banishment and ultimately the death bystarvation of the author of the proposal may be said to have begun atthat moment. The general excitement rose to a still higher pitch whenthe officers of the Eleven, the magistrates to whose custody condemnedcriminals were handed, were seen making their way, lighted by slavesholding torches, to the place where the accused were sitting. There wasnot one of the six whose features were not familiar to many in theassembly. More than one had tendered distinguished service to Athens;and one, Pericles, son of the great statesman by Aspasia, bore a namewhich no Athenian could pronounce without some emotion of pride andgratitude. It so happened that it was he on whom the officers laidhands. Something like a groan went up from the crowd; but it was toolate to undo what they had done, and it was too early for the repentancethat had already begun to work to have any practical effect. The sixwere led off to immediate execution.
Callias anxious to say a few words of farewell to his friend and kinsmanDiomedon had hurried round, as soon as he heard the announcement of thenumbers, to the door by which he knew the condemned would be taken fromthe place of assembly. The president of the Eleven who was conductingthe matter in person, as became an occasion so important, allowed abrief interview.
The young man was so overcome with grief that he could only throwhimself into the arms of his friend and cling to him in speechlessagony. Diomedon, on the contrary, was perfectly calm and collected. "Myson," he said, "this has ended as badly as I thought that it would--youwill remember what I said to you after the battle. For myself, this thatI am about to suffer is scarcely a thing to be lamented. It is hardindeed to have such a return for my services to Athens; and I wouldgladly have served her again. It has not so seemed good to theAthenians. Let it be so. I am delivered from trouble to come. I wouldnot have fled from them willingly, but if my countrymen compel me, whyshould I complain? That at least Socrates has taught me not to do. And
this day has at least brought this good, that no one can doubt hereafterthat he believes what he says. For you, my son, I have but one word. Donot despair of your country. A grateful child pays his dues of nurtureeven to an impassive mother. And now farewell!"
An hour afterwards he and his colleagues were lying mangled corpses atthe bottom of the pit.[40]
FOOTNOTES:
[36] Xenophon, who was probably in Athens at the time, positivelyasserts that this was done, and I cannot think that the arguments of Mr.Grote countervail his authority.
[37] The "Eleven" were commissioners of police who had, besides thecharge of the guardians of public order, the care of the prisoners, andthe custody of criminals.
[38] One of the most notorious instances in modern times was that of theTartar who after the battle of the Alma invented the news thatSebastopol was taken. The report was almost universally believed inEngland for some days, and the contradiction of it caused the bitterestdisappointment.
[39] Paper made from the rind of the _papyrus_, a reed which grew in theNile and which the Egyptians knew by the name of _Byblos_ (hence our'bible'). Parchment in its present form did not become common till muchlater than this time (even B. C. 150), though skin seems to have beenused for writing. For ordinary purposes paper was used.
[40] Mr. Grote says that the condemned generals drank hemlock but it isevident from the report of Euryptolemus which is substantially takenfrom Xenophon's report that the mode of execution for persons condemnedunder such charges as that brought against the generals was by beingthrown into the Pit. This place was called the _Barathron_ and waswithin the city walls and was a deep pit with hooks fastened into thewalls. The officer in charge of it was called "The Man of the Pit."