3 Trøndelag: In medieval times this was the name given to the vast area of Norway stretching from Romsdal, the valley south of Nidaros (today the city of Trondheim), all the way up to the northernmost Norwegian settlements in Haalogaland.
4 turnover day: The day on which tenants and servants were allowed to give up their positions and move to new ones. The exact day varied by area, but was often Summer Day (April 14) and Winter Day (October 14) of each year.
5 she had been to church after giving birth: After giving birth, a woman’s first attendance of a church service marked the religious celebration of her recovery. Among women of the nobility, this event ideally occurred after a six- to eight-week rest period following the birth. Many women, however, probably could not afford such a long convalescence before resuming their household responsibilities.
CHAPTER 2
1 inherit my ancestral property after me: As Erlend’s illegitimate son, Orm could not inherit his father’s ancestral estates, which were the allodial property of his lineage. This was land held in absolute ownership, without obligation or service to any feudal overlord. In Norway it was an ancient institution in which a man’s inherited allodial rights depended on proof that the land had been possessed continuously by his family or kin group for at least four generations. Children born of an adulterous relationship held a precarious position in medieval society, since they were usually not entitled to property or other privileges of kinship.
2 inadvertently looked at a fire: According to pre-Christian belief, it was dangerous for a pregnant woman to look at a fire that had been started by some accident or misfortune (such as lightning). Disfigurement of the unborn child could result.
3 Saint Olav: During his reign from 1016 to 1030, King Olav Har aldssøn firmly established Christianity in Norway. Churches were built, priests were appointed, and Nidaros regained its stature as a spiritual center after years of neglect. The king also unified the country under one monarchy by driving out those noblemen who had risen up against him. When King Olav died a hero’s death in battle, rumors began to circulate that he was a holy man and that miracles had occurred at his grave in Nidaros. Pilgrims began streaming to the cathedral, and the cult of Saint Olav grew rapidly. Olav churches and altars were built throughout Norway, and cloisters were dedicated to the holy man. Although never officially canonized, Olav became the most popular of Norwegian saints and was recognized as the patron saint of the country.
4 Nidaros: One of five episcopal seats in Norway during the Middle Ages; now the city of Trondheim. Nidaros Cathedral housed the famous shrine of Saint Olav and was the destination of thousands of pilgrims every year, particularly during the Feast of Saint Olav in late July.
5 Verbum caro . . . : And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us. John 1:14.
6 Blessed Mary, you who are the clear star of the sea: The North Star (maris stella) was identified with the Virgin Mary, and both served as the guide and protector of seamen.
7 the spirits of the dead: In pagan times it was believed that those people who had not received a proper, ritual burial would restlessly roam the earth in midwinter, when sacrifices were made to the gods to ask for a bountiful coming year. With the advent of Christianity, the Church adopted and modified this belief. It was thought that during Christmas, the souls of those people who had not yet passed through purgatory would wander around disconsolately, not having found peace in the grave. These spirits were both pitied and feared. It was considered unwise to go outdoors at all, except to Christmas mass, and never alone. Food was set out for the dead souls during the entire holiday.
8 Saint Joseph of Arimathea: A disciple of Christ mentioned in all four Gospels who obtained permission from Pontius Pilate to give the Savior’s body an honorable burial. In later literature Joseph was described as the first witness of the Resurrection and as the recipient of the Holy Grail. Other accounts placed him in Glastonbury (in Somerset), leading a group of missionaries sent by the apostle Saint Philip. Bretland was the medieval name for Wales.
9 the spirit of the first owner lives underneath: Another commonly held pagan belief that the spirit of the original owner of an estate continued to offer protection from his grave.
CHAPTER 3
1 ting: A meeting of free, adult men (women rarely attended) which met at regular intervals to discuss matters of concern to a particular community. On the local level, the ting might consider such issues as pasture rights, fencing, bridge and road construction, taxes, and the maintenance of the local warship. A regional ting, attended by chieftains or appointed deputies, would address such issues as defense and legal jurisdiction. The regional ting also functioned as a court, although its authority diminished as the power of the king grew. In addition to its regular meetings, a ting could be called for a specific purpose, such as the acclamation of a new king.
2 when her time came to kneel on the floor: Women gave birth by kneeling on the floor, supported by women family members and skilled helpers or midwives called in from the surrounding village or parish. The birth took place in a building separate from the normal living quarters in order to prevent infection. A birth chair, common elsewhere in medieval Europe, was not used in Norway.
CHAPTER 4
1 Tristan and Isolde: Tristan was the legendary Celtic warrior and hunter most famous for his love affair with the Irish princess Isolde, whom he had courted on behalf of his uncle. When Tristan and the princess accidentally shared a love potion intended for Isolde’s betrothed, the two fell passionately in love. In the end, the two lovers were parted, and Tristan married another Isolde, but he never forgot his first love. Both of them came to a tragic end. The story was made famous in two French poems from the twelfth century.
2 Saint Martin’s story: Saint Martin is the patron saint of France and father of monasticism, famous for the miracles he performed during his lifetime (A.D. 316-397).
3 Averte faciem . . . : Hide thy face from my sins, and blot out all mine iniquities.
Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a right spirit within me. Cast me not away from thy presence; and take not thy holy spirit from me. Psalm 51:9-11.
4 leprosy: A much-feared disease that was common throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. Many Scandinavian monasteries took care of patients, and numerous hospitals were founded to offer treatment.
5 corrody: A pension or allowance granted by a cloister in exchange for donated land or property; it permitted the holder to retire into the cloister as a boarder.
CHAPTER 5
1 Halland: Region on the west coast of Sweden between 56°19’ and 57°38’, roughly between the present-day cities of Halmstad and Göteborg, north of the region of Skaane (cf. Part III, Chapter 1, note 4). Originally the northern portion was under Danish control, but Earl Jacob (a descendant of the Danish king Valdemar Sejr) brought it under Norwegian rule. In 1305 it was passed on to the Swedish Duke Eirik upon his marriage to Lady Ingebjørg.
2 The new manor priest: Privately owned churches, called “convenience churches,” were often built by noblemen on their own manors and by the king on his royal estates in the country and in towns. Priests were appointed by the bishops, but the owner retained certain patronage rights. Many of these private churches eventually became parish churches.
CHAPTER 6
1 Winter Night: October 14, considered the beginning of the winter halfyear.
2 Magnificat anima . . . : My soul praises the Lord. And my spirit rejoices in the Lord, my Savior.
3 Cor mundum . . . : Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a right spirit within me.
Cast me not away from thy presence.
Deliver me from bloodguiltiness, O God, thou God of my salvation. Psalms 51:10-11, 14.
4 Minorites: A widespread order of friars founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1223.
PART II CHAPTER 1
1 underaged boy: In 1319 Magnus Eirikssøn became king of both Norway and Sweden at the age of three. He was the son of the Norwegian Prince
ss Ingebjørg (daughter of King Haakon V) and the Swedish Duke Eirik. For the first few years of Magnus’s minority, his mother served as regent and exerted much power in both countries. Discontent with her rule grew rapidly, however, and in 1322 the Swedish lords joined forces to deprive Lady Ingebjørg of authority; the following year the Norwegians followed suit. Each country was then ruled by a separate regent and council of noblemen until King Magnus came of age in 1331.
2 Skara: The ecclesiastical and royal seat of southern Sweden during the Middle Ages.
3 a full campaign: The support of war campaigns initiated by the king was based on a defense system which divided Norway first into counties and then into parishes. Because of the mountainous and heavily forested topography of Norway, war expeditions were largely launched by sea. Each county was thus required to supply and equip a warship, and each parish had to provide a member of the ship’s crew. In addition, taxes were levied to finance the campaigns. Wealthy landowners, who had both horses and weapons needed for the war, were usually required to do military service but were exempted from these taxes.
4 Eufemia’s betrothal: Eufemia was the sister of King Magnus. In 1321, at the age of four, she was betrothed to the German Prince Albrecht of Mecklenburg, who was himself only three. This marriage was arranged by her mother, Lady Ingebjørg, in return for the services of 200 fully armed men. These soldiers stood ready to support her plans for bringing the rich area of Skaane, then part of Denmark, under her control.
5 Sir Knut: Knut Porse was an ambitious nobleman from Halland who played a key role in proclaiming the underaged Magnus as king of Sweden in 1319. He then joined forces with the king’s mother, Lady Ingebjørg, in various intrigues against the Danish Crown that were not supported by either the Swedish or Norwegian nobles. In 1326 Porse supported the Danish uprising against King Christoffer II and was rewarded by the new Danish king with the duchy of Halland, other vast properties, and numerous castles in Denmark. As a duke, Porse was finally in a position to marry Lady Ingebjørg, and the wedding took place in 1327.
6 Bjørgvin: Medieval name for Bergen, which was the royal and ecclesiastical center of West Norway. In the twelth century it became the first port in Scandinavia to have international commercial importance, and it was the main market for the export of dried cod, or stockfish. By the fourteenth century Bjørgvin was the largest Norwegian town, with approximately 7,000 inhabitants. The population of the other foremost Norwegian towns was as follows: Nidaros: 3,000; Oslo: 2,000; and Tunsberg: 1,500.
7 chapter: An assembly of the canons of a cathedral. Canon was an ecclesiastical title for a member of a group of priests who served in a cathedral and who were usually expected to live a communal life.
8 Haalogaland: The medieval name for the northernmost inhabited territory of Norway, extending from present-day Nordland County to the middle of Troms County. The name derives from Old Norse, meaning “high blaze” land or “midnight sun” land.
9 Lavrans Lagmanssøn: As explained in Volume I of Kristin Lavransdatter, Lavrans was descended from the noble Swedish lineage known as the “sons of Lagmand.”
CHAPTER 2
1 cantor: The priest who was in charge of both the cathedral choir and school.
2 benefice: An ecclesiastical position to which specific revenues or properties were attached.
3 The Finns and the other half-wild peoples: Since saga times the inhabitants of Finnmark, both Finns and Sami (today no longer called by the derogatory name of Lapps), were considered skilled in witchcraft and sorcery. The Norwegians also regarded them as heathens.
4 Gandvik Sea: Medieval name for the White Sea, near present-day Arkhangel’sk, Russia. During the Middle Ages the area surrounding the White Sea was called Bjarmeland. It was separated from Finnmark, which was under the Norwegian Crown, by a great river and promontory. The Norwegians discovered the passage to Bjarmeland around the North Cape in the ninth century, and frequent raids were made in subsequent centuries. The Russians were also interested in the area because it was an important fur-trading center, and by the thirteenth century it had come under the rule of Novgorod.
CHAPTER 3
1 Karelians: Inhabitants of eastern Finland and the Russian territory around the White Sea. Karelia was the stage for a centuries-long border dispute between Sweden and Russia that was not settled until a treaty was signed in 1323.
2 Santiago de Compostela: Town in Galicia in northwestern Spain which became the third most important Christian pilgrimage site (after Jerusalem and Rome) during the Middle Ages. According to legend, the bones of Saint James the Apostle were taken there, and his tomb was purportedly discovered in A.D. 813.
CHAPTER 4
1 Sami woman from Kola: The nomadic people called the Samis (formerly known as Lapps) today still inhabit the vast region of northern Europe which extends above the Arctic Circle. The Kola peninsula stretches northeast from Finland, between the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea.
2 Saint Sunniva: According to legend, Sunniva (a Christian princess of Irish blood) was driven from England in the tenth century along with a large entourage. They set sail in three ships that had neither oars nor sails, but they miraculously made it safely to the Norwegian island of Selje, where they sought refuge in the caves. Eventually a rock slide buried them all. Rumors of a strange light over the island brought both the king and bishop to investigate, and the bodies of the Selje men and Sunniva were discovered, hers completely unscathed by injury or decay. In the twelfth century her body was taken to Bjørgvin (Bergen) and buried in the cathedral there.
3 prebends: Stipends received by clergymen which were provided by a special endowment or derived from the revenues of their cathedral or church.
CHAPTER 5
1 the inheritance had been settled: Simon Andressøn was not entitled to inherit Mandvik, the estate of his deceased wife, because their child died before she did. If the infant had survived the mother by even a brief time, the property would have passed on to the father.
2 dispensation: In 1215 the laws of the Church were changed to allow marriage between third cousins (considered kinship to the fourth degree), although only with special dispensation. Before that time marriage was not allowed up to the seventh degree, which covered such a wide group of kinsmen that it proved impractical in medieval society.
CHAPTER 7
1 Venite ad me . . . : Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Matthew 11:28.
CHAPTER 8
1 Soten: The Norwegian word for “soot.”
2 weapons-ting: Assembly called to ensure that each man had in his possession the weapons prescribed by law.
3 Summer Day: April 14, considered the beginning of the summer half-year.
4 campaign against Duke Eirik: Duke Eirik Magnussön of Sweden attempted to extend his power by attacking Oslo in 1308 and again in 1310. Both incursions were fought back, but after the second one the Norwegian king launched a retaliatory campaign, in which Lavrans apparently participated during Kristin’s childhood.
5 Exsurrexi, et adhuc . . . : When I awake, I am still with thee. Psalms 139:18.
PART III CHAPTER 1
1 allowed to remain in the country: The king could grant permission for a man to remain in Norway even though he had either been sentenced to banishment, or had committed acts punishable by banishment.
2 Frosta ting: One of the four independent law assemblies in Norway during the Middle Ages. Founded by King Haakon the Good in the tenth century, the Frosta ting was usually held in the summer on the Frosta peninsula in Trondheim Fjord, although Sigrid Undset has moved the setting to Nidaros in her novel.
3 cote-hardi: A lined outer garment with sleeves and hood, worn by both men and women; it fit snugly to the body and was buttoned down the front.
4 Skaane: A rich agricultural region in the southernmost section of present-day Sweden that belonged to Denmark during the Middle Ages. The great demand for salt herring made the Öresund coast a key trading area,
and the Skaane Fair was one of the foremost fairs in medieval Europe. Every year merchants would arrive overland and by sea to trade their wares when the market opened on August 15. In 1289 the Norwegians unsuccessfully attempted to seize Skaane. King Magnus Eirikssøn tried again in 1332 and subsequently held the area for nearly thirty years.
CHAPTER 2
1 letter-breaching: The punishable offense of breaking the seal on letters addressed to someone else. In medieval Norway letters were often safeguarded and conveyed in carved wooden boxes that could be securely closed.
III: THE CROSS PART I CHAPTER 1
1 high seat: The place of honor, reserved for the male head of the family or an honored guest. The high seat was usually in the middle of the table, on the side against the wall. Servants often sat on the opposite bench.
CHAPTER 2
1 try to lure her inside: In medieval Norway people believed that the forests and mountains were populated by many types of supernatural beings, which were both unpredicatable and menacing.
2 the transparent hide: Both window openings and smoke vents were often covered with a transparent membrane, usually made from a cow’s stomach.
CHAPTER 3
1 His two motherless daughters had been taken in: An arrangement by which a number of neighboring estates agreed to provide a certain amount of food for the poor. Each manor fulfilled its obligations either by distributing food to needy individuals or by taking in charity cases for a specified length of time.
2 Convertere, Domine . . . : Return, O Lord, how long? and let it repent thee concerning thy servants. Psalms 30:13. Be not wroth very sore, O Lord, neither remember iniquity for ever: behold, see, we beseech thee, we are all thy people. Isaiah 64:9.
CHAPTER 4
1 ting: A meeting of free, adult men (women rarely attended) which met at regular intervals to discuss matters of concern to a particular community. On the local level, the ting might consider such issues as pasture rights, fencing, bridge and road construction, taxes, and the maintenance of the local warship. A regional ting, attended by chieftains or appointed deputies, would address such issues as defense and legal jurisdiction. The regional ting also functioned as a court, although its authority diminished as the power of the king grew. In addition to its regular meetings, a ting could be called for a specific purpose, such as the acclamation of a new king.