The ancient texts are another route to the past. Without Tacitus, Florus, Velleius Paterculus, Cassius Dio and Pliny, my task of writing this trilogy would have been hard indeed. Their ‘Rome-aggrandising’ words must be taken with a pinch of salt, but they are vital when breathing life into two-thousand-year-old events. Bill Thayer, an American academic at the University of Chicago, has to be thanked here. His website, LacusCurtius, has English translations of almost every surviving Roman text. I would be lost without it. You can find them here: http://tinyurl.com/3utm5.
When writing historical fiction, textbooks are indispensable. A bibliography of those I used while writing Eagles in the Storm would run to pages, so I will reference only the most important, in alphabetical order by author: Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses by M. C. Bishop; Roman Military Equipment by M. C. Bishop and J. C. N. Coulston; Greece and Rome at War by Peter Connolly; The Complete Roman Army by Adrian Goldsworthy; Rome’s Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest by Adrian Murdoch; Eager for Glory: The Untold Story of Drusus the Elder, Germanicus, and Roman Soldier versus Germanic Warrior, all by Lindsay Powell; The Varian Disaster (multiple authors), a special edition of Ancient Warfare magazine. I have to mention the publishers Osprey and Karwansaray, whose publications are of frequent help, and the ever-useful Oxford Classical Dictionary.
Gratitude to the members of romanarmytalk.com for their rapid answers to my odd questions, and to Paul Harston and the legionaries of Roman Tours UK/Legion XX Deva Victrix for the same, and for providing men and materials for the covers of this and the other volumes in the trilogy. Adrian Murdoch and Lindsay Powell, named above, must be thanked for their patience, knowledge and generosity with their time. They have also been kind enough to read both this book and the previous two, and to provide corrections and words of wisdom. You are both true gentlemen.
I am indebted to a legion of people at my publishers, Penguin Random House. Selina Walker, my wonderful editor, possesses an eagle eye quite like no other. She has also taught me much. Thanks again, Selina! Aslan Byrne, Lizzy Gaisford, Amelia Evans, Catherine Turner, David Parrish and Jasmine Rowe, thank you also! You work so hard to ensure that my books do well. I’m also grateful to my foreign publishers, in particular to the team at Ediciones B in Spain. Other people must be mentioned and thanked: Charlie Viney, my wonderful agent and friend. Richenda Todd, my copy-editor, a real star. Claire Wheller, my fabulous sports physio, who keeps my RSIs at bay; Jo Lott, my second amazing sports physio, who sorted out my right leg during the training for my Hannibal bike ride. I cannot express how grateful I am for that – the injury happened about seven weeks before I was due to depart. For a time, going on the trip looked doubtful.
Here I must make mention of the bike ride: you may know of my ‘Romani walks’ in 2013 and 2014, when I walked Hadrian’s Wall and Capua to Rome for charity. I did these walks in the company of two great authors and friends, Tony Riches and Russell Whitfield. Watch the documentary of the Italian walk (narrated by Sir Ian McKellen) on YouTube: http://tinyurl.com/h4n8h6g – and please tell your friends about it!
Tony and Russ laughed in my face in 2015 when I mentioned cycling from Barcelona to Rome, following much of the Carthaginian general Hannibal’s route. ‘It’s only sixteen hundred miles,’ I said. ‘The daily average climb is only five thousand feet.’ Sensible chaps, they wouldn’t listen, so I decided to go it alone. Well, not alone, but not with them. As I write this in early October 2016, I have just returned from the month-long amazing trip, still able to walk – in fact, fitter than I have been since I was twenty-two and playing rugby. I’m proud to say that I have already raised over £17,000 for the charity Combat Stress, which helps veterans with PTSD, and Park in the Past, a community-interest company which plans to build a Roman marching fort near Chester, in northwest England.
Thanks to all of you who donated, supported and helped out with the fundraising. Here I must mention that Calvus, the unfortunate farmer turned legionary who died at Idistaviso, is based on Richard Hepple, the winner of a raffle I held during the drive to raise cash. Richard happens to be an old friend as well – picked by the random-number generator, I hasten to add. Sorry about how much abuse you got from the other soldiers, Richard! Big gratitude to the ever-generous Robin Carter, who always goes the extra mile with donations of books and money, and material help too. You are one of life’s gentlemen, Robin. A massive thank you to Sam Wood and Dylan Reynolds of Ride and Seek Tours: two wonderful chaps, now good friends. Check out rideandseek.com for details of their amazing bike trips. Graeme Sutherland, Ben Weigl, Richie Mitchell and Jessica Shull, you were guides extraordinaire. Tony Kean, Patti and Steve Small, Jane Clifton and Tony Duckworth – you guys made the Hannibal trip so much more enjoyable – cheers. And Patti: ‘TAXI!’
Heartfelt gratitude also to you, my wonderful readers. You keep me in a job, for which I am ever thankful. As I have said before, anything not to go back to veterinary medicine! Your emails and contacts on Facebook and Twitter brighten up my days: please keep them coming. I often give away signed books and Roman goodies via these media, so keep your eyes peeled. I’ll also mention here that reviewing my books after you’ve read them, whether it be on Amazon, Goodreads, Waterstone’s, iTunes or other websites, is such a help. The reviews don’t have to be long or complicated.
Last of all, I must thank Sair, my lovely wife, and Ferdia and Pippa, my amazing, beautiful children, for the oceans of love and joy that they bring into my world, and for putting up with my slightly – should that be very? – eccentric life.
Ways to contact me:
Email:
[email protected] Twitter: @BenKaneAuthor
Facebook: facebook.com/benkanebooks
Also, my website: benkane.net
YouTube (my short documentary-style videos): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCorPV-9BUCzfvRT-bVOSYYw
Glossary
Alara: the River Aller, a tributary of the Weser.
Albis: the River Elbe.
Aliso: a Roman fort on the River Lupia; possibly modern-day Haltern-am-See.
Amisia: the River Ems.
amphora (pl. amphorae): a two-handled clay vessel with a narrow neck and tapering base used to store wine, olive oil and other produce. Of many sizes, including those that are larger than a man, amphorae were heavily used in long-distance transport.
aquilifer (pl. aquiliferi): the standard-bearer for the aquila, or eagle, of a legion. The images surviving today show the aquilifer bare-headed, leading some to suppose that this was always the case. In combat, however, this would have been too dangerous; it’s probable that the aquilifer did use a helmet. We do not know either if he wore an animal skin, as the signifer did, but it is a common interpretation. The armour was often scale, and the shield carried probably a small one, which could be carried without using the hands. During the early empire, the aquila was made of gold, and was mounted on a spiked wooden staff, allowing it to be shoved into the ground. Sometimes the staff had arms, which permitted it to be borne more easily. Even when damaged, the aquila was not destroyed, but repaired time and again. If lost in battle, the Romans would do almost anything to get the standard back, as you have read in this book. See also the entries for legion and signifer.
Ara Ubiorum: Cologne.
Arduenna Silva: the Ardennes Forest.
as (pl. asses): a small copper coin, worth a quarter of a sestertius, or a sixteenth of a denarius.
Asciburgium: Moers-Asberg.
Augusta Treverorum: Trier.
Augusta Vindelicorum: Augsberg.
aureus (pl. aurei): a small gold coin worth twenty-five denarii. Until the early empire, it had been minted infrequently.
auxiliaries (in Latin: auxilia): It was common for Rome to employ non-citizens in its armies, both as light infantry and as cavalry. By the time of Augustus, the auxilia had been turned into a regular, professional force. Roughly cohort- or double-cohort-sized units, they were of three types: infantry, cavalry or mixed. Auxil
iary units were commanded by prefects, equestrian officers. It’s possible that Arminius may once have been such a commander – and that’s how I chose to portray him in Eagles at War.
Bacchus: the Roman god of wine and intoxication, ritual madness and mania. Dionysos to the Greeks.
barritus: the war chant sung by German warriors.
Bonna: Bonn.
camp prefect: see entry for legion.
centurion (in Latin, centurio): the disciplined career officers who formed the backbone of the Roman army. See also the entry for legion.
century: the main sub-unit of a Roman legion. Although its original strength had been one hundred men, it had numbered eighty for close to half a millennium by the first century AD. The unit was divided into ten sections of eight soldiers, called contubernia. See also the entries for contubernium and legion.
Civitas Nemetum: Speyer.
cohort: a unit comprising a tenth of a legion’s strength. A cohort was made up of six centuries, each nominally of eighty legionaries. Each century was led by a centurion. The centurion leading the First Century was the most senior (this is Tullus’ rank at the start of the book); the centurions were ranked after him, in order of their century: second, third and so on. The cohorts followed the same line of seniority, so that the centurions of the First Cohort, for example, outranked those of the Second Cohort, who were more senior than those of the Third etc. See also the entries for centurion, century, legion and legionary.
Confluentes: Koblenz.
contubernium (pl. contubernia): a group of eight legionaries who shared a tent or barracks room and who cooked and ate together. See also the entry for legion.
Danuvius: the River Danube.
denarius (pl. denarii): the staple coin of the Roman Empire. Made from silver, it was worth four sestertii, or sixteen asses. The less common gold aureus was worth twenty-five denarii.
Donar: the German thunder god, and one of the only tribal deities attested in the early first century AD.
Drusus: more correctly, Nero Claudius Drusus, brother of the later emperor Tiberius. Born in 38 BC, he began campaigning at the age of twenty-three. Three years later, Augustus entrusted the conquest of Germany to him. From 12 to 9 BC, he led consecutive and successful campaigns over the Rhine, dying after a fall from his horse during the final one.
equestrian: a Roman nobleman, ranked just below the class of senator. It was possible to move upwards, into the senatorial class, but the process was not easy.
Fates: Greek goddesses who determined man’s destiny. The notion of a universal power of fate was less evident among the Romans, but some would have revered them.
Fectio: Vechten.
Flevo Lacus: the Zuiderzee, now the IJsselmeer.
Fortuna: the goddess of luck and good fortune. All deities were notorious for being fickle, but she was the worst.
framea (pl. frameae): the long spear used by most German tribesmen. It had a short, narrow iron blade and was a fearsome weapon. Used in conjunction with a shield, it was employed to stab, throw or swing at an opponent.
Gaul: modern-day France and Belgium. The region was divided into four provinces by Augustus: Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis. Three of the four were part of Tres Galliae – see relevant entry.
Germania: in the years AD 9–16, the Romans regarded the lands along the Rhine as two provinces, Germania Inferior and Superior. The territory east of the Rhine could have been known as Germania Libera, or ‘free’ Germany, or simply ‘Germania’.
gladius (pl. gladii): by the time of the early principate, the Republican gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade, had been replaced by the so-called ‘Mainz’ gladius (named because of the many examples found there). The Mainz was a short steel sword, some 400–550 mm in length. Leaf-shaped, it varied in width from 54–75 mm to 48–60 mm. It ended with a ‘V’-shaped point that measured between 96 and 200 mm. It was a well-balanced sword for both cutting and thrusting. The shaped handgrip was made of ox bone; it was protected at the distal end by a pommel and nearest the blade by a hand guard, both made of wood. The scabbard was made from layered wood, sheathed by leather and encased at the edges by U-shaped copper alloy. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. Contrary to what one might think, it is easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned in this manner to avoid entanglement with the shield while being unsheathed.
Hades: the Roman underworld.
Hercules (in Greek, Herakles): the divine son of Jupiter/Zeus, famous for his strength and twelve labours.
Illyricum (or Illyria): the Roman name for the lands that lay across the Adriatic Sea from Italy: including parts of Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro. Illyricum included the area known as Pannonia, which became a Roman province sometime during the first half of the first century AD.
intervallum: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings or tents from enemy missiles, it allowed the massing of troops before patrols or battle.
javelin: the Roman pilum (pl. pila). It consisted of a wooden shaft some 1.2 m long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving tremendous penetrative force. It could drive through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, rendering it unusable. The range of the pilum was about 30 m, although the effective range was about half this distance.
Jupiter: often referred to as ‘Optimus Maximus’ – ‘Greatest and Best’. Most powerful of the Roman gods, he was responsible for weather, especially storms. Jupiter was the brother as well as the husband of Juno.
lararium: a household shrine where lares or guardian deities could be venerated.
latrunculi: a two-person strategic Roman board game. Little information about its rules survive, which makes playing it as the Romans did rather difficult.
Laugona: the River Lahn.
legate (in Latin, legatus legionis): the officer in command of a legion, and a man of senatorial rank, most often in his early thirties. The legate reported to the regional governor. See also the entry for legion.
legion (in Latin, legio): the largest independent unit of the Roman army. At full strength, it consisted of ten cohorts, each of which comprised 480 legionaries, divided into six centuries of eighty men. Every century was divided into ten sections, contubernia, of eight men. The centuries were each led by a centurion, each of whom had three junior officers to help run the unit: the optio, signifer and tesserarius. (See also the relevant entry for each.) Every century and cohort had their own standard; each legion possessed an eagle. The legion was commanded by a legate, whose second-in-command was the most senior of six tribunes, the tribunus laticlavius. The camp prefect, a former primus pilus, was third-in-command; after him – we are not sure in what order – came the five junior tribunes and the primus pilus. One hundred and twenty cavalrymen were attached to each legion. (See entry for turmae.) Every legion also had fifty-five bolt-throwers, manned by specially trained legionaries. In practice, no legion was ever at full strength. Sickness and detachments on duty in other places and, in wartime, losses due to combat were some of the reasons for this.
legionary: the professional Roman foot soldier. A citizen, he joined the army in his late teens or early twenties, swearing direct allegiance to the emperor. In AD 15, his term of service was twenty years, with a further five years as a veteran. He was paid three times a year, after deductions for food and equipment had been made. Over a tunic, most often of white wool (and occasionally red), he probably wore a padded garment, the subarmalis, which served to dissipate the penetrative power of enemy weapons that struck his armour. Next came a mail shirt or the famous segmented iron armour, the so-called lorica segmentata (a modern name). The latter armour was just coming into use at this tim
e – pieces of it have been found at Kalkriese. Neck scarves are depicted on Trajan’s column and a few other friezes, but none have survived, so their frequency of use is unknown. Military belts were always worn, and for the most part covered by small tinned or silvered plates. It was common to suspend from the belt an ‘apron’ of four or more leather, metal-studded straps; these served as decoration and to protect the groin. Various types of helmet were in use during the early first century AD, made of iron, bronze or brass, sometimes with copper, tin and/or zinc alloy decorative pieces. The legionary carried a shield for defence, while his offensive weapons consisted of gladius, javelin and dagger (see entries for the first two). This equipment weighed well in excess of twenty kilos. When the legionary’s other equipment: carrying ‘yoke’, blanket, cooking pot, grain supply and tools were added, his load came to more than forty kilos. The fact that legionaries were expected to march thirty-two kilometres/twenty miles in five hours, carrying this immense weight, shows their high level of fitness. It’s not surprising either that they soon wore down the hobnails on their sandals.
‘Long Bridges’ or Pontes Longi: this was a Roman wooden road over an area of bogland in northwestern Germany, built more than ten years before the events of AD 15–16.
Lupia: the River Lippe.
Mare Germanicum or German Sea: the North Sea.
Mars: the god of war. All spoils of war were consecrated to him, and few Roman commanders would go on campaign without having visited Mars’ temple to ask for the god’s protection and blessing.
Mogontiacum: Mainz.
Novaesium: Neuss.
optio (pl. optiones): the officer who ranked immediately below a centurion; the second-in-command of a century. See also the entry for legion.