157 promptly charged him with kidnapping. See Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
157 conferences and rallies in more than two dozen cities. Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 178-83.
158 won more Harlem votes than in his previous elections. See Charles Rosenberg, “Davis, Benjamin J., Jr.,” in Paul Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 14-15.
158 the NAACP, also ran for the council. Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, pp. 153-55, 157-58.
158 assembly members; and ten of its 189 judges. Biondi, To Stand and Fight, pp. 215-19.
158 “couched in left-wing phraseology.” Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: From Its Origins to the Present (New York: William Morrow, 1967), p. 227.
158 its associations with the Marxist Left. Ibid., p. 245.
159 such notable intellectuals as Allen Ginsberg, C. Wright Mills, and I. F. Stone. Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove, 1997), pp. 399, 416, 409.
159 sponsored Williams's first trip to Cuba. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), pp. 29-30.
159 “violence to successful revolutions.” Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, pp. 356-57.
160 “know that the devil has no Justice for you.” Elijah Muhammad to Minister James 3X Shabazz, April 28, 1959. Copy in possession of author.
160 presented the Nation of Islam in a favorable light. See Al Nall, “Moslem Trial Begins,” Amsterdam News, March 7, 1959; Al Nall, “Moslems Accuse Cops,” Amsterdam News, March 14, 1959; and Al Nall, “Moslems Go Free,” Amsterdam News, March 21, 1959.
160 for a crusading African-American press. “Say Paper Helped Free 5 Moslems,” Amsterdam News, April 11, 1959.
160 a familiar presence on New York-area television. Val Adams, “Wallace May Get New TV Programs,” New York Times, February 11, 1959.
160 from American University and Yale (in 1944 and 1947 respectively). See “Louis Lomax, 47, Dies in Car Crash,” New York Times, August 1, 1970; David Shaw, “Louis Lomax, Black Author, Killed in Crash,” Los Angeles Times, August 1, 1970; and “Author Lomax Killed When His Auto Overturns,” Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1970.
160 “skits over the air in the District of Columbia.” FBI—Louis E. Lomax file, Memo, M. A. Jones to Louis B. Nichols, February 2, 1956.
161 during which time his wife had divorced him. FBI—Lomax, Memo, Chicago Office, February 7, 1956.
161 the Associated Negro Press in Washington. Ibid.
161 in magazines such as Pageant, Coronet, and The Nation. FBI—Lomax, Memo, G. C. Moore to W. C. Sullivan, February 23, 1969. This memo states, “Bureau files reflect that Lomax is an unscrupulous charlatan who has been extremely critical of the FBI and the Director.” The FBI also noted that Lomax’s 1968 book, To Kill a Black Man, attributed the assassination to “the American Government, particularly the CIA . . .ʺ
161 guests prior to their appearance on his show. Walt Dutton, “Controversy Is Lomax Forte,” Los Angeles Times, April 23, 1965.
161 Elijah Muhammad’s approval through Malcolm. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 134.
161 to film Muhammad at a rally in Washington on May 31. Louis E. Lomax, “10,000 Muslims Hold Meeting in Washington,” Amsterdam News, June 6, 1959. Lomax reported in his story that “following the speech, Mr. Muhammad was given a police escort back to the hotel where, for the first time, he submitted to a filmed TV interview. . . . A reporter and camera crew were flown to Washington from New York for that purpose.” In that interview, Muhammad predicted “the pending destruction of the white man will occur before 1970.”
161 “pertinent facts in refutation is not conscientious or constructive reporting.” Jack Gould, “Negro Documentary: Wallace’s Guide to the ‘Black Supremacy’ Movement Challenged by Experts,” New York Times, July 23, 1959.
162 “an invasion by ‘men from Mars.’” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 240-42.
162 longest-running news feature program in television history. See Mike Wallace with Gary Paul Gates, Close Encounters (New York: William Morrow, 1984); Susan King, “Q and A: Mike Wallace: 40 Years of Asking,” Los Angeles Times, September 23, 1990; and Donna Rosenthal, “Mike Without Malice,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 23, 1990.
162 to exploit their connections with the NOI. See M. S. Handler, “Author Describes Slaying of 3 Rights Workers in Mississippi,” New York Times, October 26, 1964; Walt Dutton, “Controversy Is Lomax Forte”; and “Louis Lomax, 47, Dies in Car Crash,” New York Times.
162 “No enemy wants to see the so-called American Negro free and united.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 134-35; MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 29, 1959; MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 17, 1959, pp. 34-35; and MX FBI, Correlation Summary, August 22, 1961, p. 55.
163 under the title The Black Muslims in America, became the standard work for decades. See C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (Boston: Beacon, 1961). Lincoln believed that the Nation of Islam, despite its unorthodox beliefs, had some legitimacy in claiming to be part of the larger Islamic faith community. His principal thesis, however, was that the Nation was essentially a black nationalist political movement that used Islam as the pretext for demanding complete separation from white Americans and their religion, Christianity.
163 “and work at a job that leads only to a dead end.” See Louis E. Lomax, When the Word Is Given . . . (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1963); and Herb Nipson, “Black Muslims—Promise and Threat,” Chicago Tribune, November 10, 1963.
163 “spiritual growth among the Negroes of Amer