Aesculapius: son of Apollo, the god of health and the protector of doctors. Revered by the Carthaginians as well as the Romans.
Agora: we have no idea what Carthaginians called the central meeting area in their city. I have used the Greek term to differentiate it from the main Forum in Rome. Without doubt, the Agora would have been the most important meeting place in Carthage.
Alps: In Latin, these mountains are called Alpes. Not used in the novel (unlike the Latin names for other geographical features) as it looks ‘strange’ to modern eyes.
Assembly of the People: the public debating group to which all Carthaginian male citizens belonged. Its main power was that of electing the suffetes once a year.
Astarte: a Carthaginian goddess whose origins lie in the East. She may have represented marriage, and was perhaps seen as the protector of cities and different social groups.
atrium: the large chamber immediately beyond the entrance hall in a Roman house. Frequently built on a grand scale, this was the social and devotional centre of the home.
Baal Hammon: the pre-eminent god at the time of the founding of Carthage. He was the protector of the city, the fertilising sun, the provider of wealth and the guarantor of success and happiness. The Tophet, or the sacred area where Baal Hammon was worshipped, is the site where the bones of children and babies have been found, giving rise to the controversial topic of child sacrifice. For those who are interested, there is an excellent discussion on the issue in Richard Miles’ book, Carthage Must Be Destroyed. The term ‘Baal’ means ‘Master’ or ‘Lord’, and was used before the name of various gods.
Baal Saphon: the Carthaginian god of war.
bireme: an ancient warship, which was perhaps invented by the Phoenicians. It had a square sail, two sets of oars on each side, and was used extensively by the Greeks and Romans.
caetrati (sing. caetratus): light Iberian infantry. They wore short-sleeved white tunics with a crimson border at the neck, hem and sleeves. Their only protection was a helmet of sinew or bronze, and a round buckler of leather and wicker, or wood, called a caetra. They were armed with falcata swords and daggers. Some may have carried javelins.
caligae: heavy leather sandals worn by the Roman soldier. Sturdily constructed in three layers – a sole, insole and upper – caligae resembled an open-toed boot. The straps could be tightened to make them fit more closely. Dozens of metal studs on the sole gave the sandals good grip; these could also be replaced when necessary.
carnyx (pl. carnyxes): a bronze trumpet, which was held vertically and topped by a bell shaped in the form of an animal, usually a boar. Used by many Celtic peoples, it was ubiquitous in Gaul, and provided a fearsome sound alone or in unison with other instruments. It was often depicted on Roman coins, to denote victories over various tribes.
Carthage: modern-day Tunis. It was reputedly founded in 814 BC, although the earliest archaeological finds date from about sixty years later.
cenaculae (sing. cenacula): the miserable multi-storey flats in which Roman plebeians lived. Cramped, poorly lit, heated only by braziers, and often dangerously constructed, the cenaculae had no running water or sanitation. Access to the flats was via staircases built on the outside of the building.
Choma: the manmade quadrilateral area which lay to the south/southeast of the main harbours in Carthage. It was probably constructed to serve as a place to unload ships, to store goods, and to act as a pier head protecting passing vessels from the worst of the wind.
Cisalpine Gaul: the northern area of modern-day Italy, comprising the Po plain and its mountain borders from the Alps to the Apennines. In the third century BC, it was not part of the Republic.
consul: one of two annually elected chief magistrates, appointed by the people and ratified by the Senate. Effective rulers of Rome for twelve months, they were in charge of civil and military matters and led the Republic’s armies into war. Each could countermand the other and both were supposed to heed the wishes of the Senate. No man was supposed to serve as consul more than once.
Council of Elders: Carthaginian politics, with its numerous ruling bodies, is very confusing. The Council of Elders was one of the most important, however. Its members were some of the most prominent men in Carthage, and its areas of remit included the treasury and foreign affairs. Another ruling body was the Tribunal of One Hundred and Four. Composed of members of the élite aristocracy, it supervised the conduct of government officials and military leaders; it also acted as a type of higher constitutional court.
crucifixion: contrary to popular belief, the Romans did not invent this awful form of execution; in fact, the Carthaginians may well have done so. The practice is first recorded during the Punic Wars.
decurion: the cavalry officer in charge of ten men. In later times, the decurion commanded a turma, a unit of about thirty men.
didrachm: a silver coin, worth two drachmas, which was one of the main coins in third century BC Italy. Strangely, the Romans did not make coins of their own design until later on. The denarius, which was to become the main coin of the Republic, was not introduced until around 211 BC.
Eshmoun: the Carthaginian god of health and well-being, whose temple was the largest in Carthage.
falaricae (sing. falarica): a spear with a pine shaft and a long iron head, at the base of which a ball of pitch and tow was often tied. This created a lethal incendiary weapon, used to great effect by the Saguntines.
falcata sword: a lethal, slightly curved weapon with a sharp point used by light Iberian infantry. It was single-edged for the first half to two-thirds of its blade, but the remainder was double-edged. The hilt curved protectively around the hand and back towards the blade; it was often made in the shape of a horse’s head. Apparently, the caetrati who used falcata swords were well able to fight legionaries.
fasces: a bundle of rods bound together around an axe. The symbol of justice, it was carried by a lictor, a group of whom walked in front of all senior magistrates. The fasces symbolised the right of the authorities to punish and execute lawbreakers.
fides: essentially, good faith. It was regarded as a major quality in Rome.
fugitivarius (pl. fugitivarii): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways. The punishment branding the letter ‘F’ (for fugitivus) on the forehead is documented; so is the wearing of permanent neck chains, which had directions on how to return the slave to their owner.
Genua: modern-day Genoa.
gladius (pl. gladii): little information remains about the ‘Spanish’ sword of the Republican army, the gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade. It is not clear when it was adopted by the Romans, but it was probably after encountering the weapon during the First Punic War, when it was used by Celtiberian troops. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the scutum while being unsheathed.
gugga: in Plautus’ comedy, Poenulus, one of the Roman characters refers to a Carthaginian trader as a ‘gugga’. This insult can be translated as ‘little rat’.
hastati (sing. hastatus): experienced young soldiers who formed the first ranks in the Roman battle line in the third century BC. They were armed with mail or bronze breast and back plates, crested helmets, and scuta. They carried two pila, one light and one heavy, and a gladius hispaniensis.
hora secunda, the second hour; hora quarta, the fourth hour; hora undecima, the eleventh hour: Roman time was divided into two periods, that of daylight (twelve hours) and of night-time (eight watches). The first hour of the day, hora prima, started at sunrise.
Iberia: the modern-day Iberian Peninsula, encompassing Spain and Portugal.
Iberus: the River Ebro.
Illyricum (or Illyria): the Roman name for the lands that lay across the Adriatic Sea from Italy: includin
g parts of modern-day Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro.
intervallum: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings from enemy missiles, it could when necessary allow the massing of troops before battle.
kopis (pl. kopides): a Greek sword with a forward curving blade, not dissimilar to the falcata sword. It was normally carried in a leather-covered sheath and suspended from a baldric. Many ancient peoples used the kopis, from the Etruscans to the Oscans and Persians.
lictor (pl. lictores): a magistrates’ enforcer. Only strongly built citizens could apply for this job. Essentially, lictores were the bodyguards for the consuls, praetors and other senior Roman magistrates. Such officials were accompanied at all times in public by set numbers of lictores (the number depended on their rank). Each lictor carried a fasces. Other duties included the arresting and punishment of wrongdoers.
Ligurians: natives of the coastal area that was bounded to the west by the River Rhône and to the east by the River Arno.
Lusitanians: tribesmen from the area of modern-day Portugal.
Massilia: the city of Marseille in modern-day France.
Melqart: a Carthaginian god associated with the sea, and with Hercules. He was also the god most favoured by the Barca family. Hannibal notably made a pilgrimage to Melqart’s shrine in southern Iberia before beginning his war on Rome.
mulsum: a drink made by mixing four parts wine and one part honey. It was commonly drunk before meals and during the lighter courses.
munus (pl. munera): a gladiatorial combat, staged originally during celebrations honouring someone’s death.
Padus: the River Po.
papaverum: the drug morphine. Made from the flowers of the opium poppy, its use has been documented from at least 1000 BC.
peristyle: a colonnaded garden which lay to the rear of a Roman house. Often of great size, it was bordered by open-fronted seating areas, reception rooms and banqueting halls.
pilum (pl. pila): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the pilum was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance.
Pisae: modern-day Pisa.
Placentia: modern-day Piacenza.
praetor: one of four senior magistrates (in the years 228–198 BC approximately) who administered justice in Rome, or in its overseas possessions such as Sardinia and Sicily. He could also hold military commands and initiate legislation. The main understudies to the consuls, the praetors convened the Senate in their absence.
principes (sing. princeps): these soldiers – described as family men in their prime – formed the second rank of the Roman battle line in the third century BC. They were similar to the hastati, and as such were armed and dressed in much the same manner.
provocatio: an appeal on behalf of the Roman people, made against the order of a magistrate.
pteryges: also spelt pteruges. This was a twin layer of stiffened linen strips that protected the waist and groin of the wearer. It either came attached to a cuirass of the same material, or as a detachable piece of equipment to be used below a bronze breastplate. Although pteryges were designed by the Greeks, many nations used them, including the Romans and Carthaginians.
quinquereme: the principal Carthaginian fighting vessel in the third century BC. They were of similar size to triremes, but possessed many more rowers. Controversy over the exact number of oarsmen in these ships, and the positions they occupied, has gone on for decades. It is fairly well accepted nowadays, however, that the quinquereme had three sets of oars on each side. The vessel was rowed from three levels with two men on each oar of the upper banks, and one man per oar of the lower bank.
Rhodanus: the River Rhône.
Saguntum: modern-day Sagunto.
Saturnalia: a festival which began on 17 December. During the week long celebrations, ordinary rules were relaxed and slaves could dine before their masters; at this time, they could also treat them with less deference. The festival was an excuse for eating, drinking and playing games. Gifts of candles and pottery figures were also exchanged.
saunion: also called the soliferreum. This was a characteristic Iberian weapon, a slim, all-iron javelin with a small, leaf-shaped head.
scutarii (sing. scutarius): heavy Iberian infantry, Celtiberians who carried round shields, or ones very similar to those of the Roman legionaries. Richer individuals may have had mail shirts; others may have worn small breastplates. Many scutarii wore greaves. Their bronze helmets were very similar to the Gallic Montefortino style. They were armed with straight-edged swords that were slightly shorter than the Gaulish equivalent, and known for their excellent quality.
scutum (pl. scuta): an elongated oval Roman army shield, about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) wide. It was made from two layers of wood, the pieces laid at right angles to each other; it was then covered with linen or canvas, and leather. The scutum was heavy, weighing between 6 and 10 kg (13–22 lbs). A large metal boss decorated its centre, with the horizontal grip placed behind this. Decorative designs were often painted on the front, and a leather cover was used to protect the shield when not in use, e.g. while marching. Some of the Iberian and Gaulish warriors used very similar shields.
Scylla: a mythical monster with twelve feet and six heads that dwelt in a cave opposite the whirlpool Charybdis, in the modern Straits of Messina.
socii: allies of Rome. By the time of the Punic Wars, all the non-Roman peoples of Italy had been forced into military alliances with Rome. In theory, these peoples were still independent, but in practice they were subjects, who were obliged to send quotas of troops to fight for the Republic whenever it was demanded.
stade: from the Greek word stadion. It was the distance of the original foot race in the ancient Olympic games of 776 BC, and was approximately 192 m (630 ft) in length. The word ‘stadium’ derives from it.
strigil: a small, curved iron tool used to clean the skin after bathing. First perfumed oil was rubbed in, and then the strigil was used to scrape off the combination of sweat, dirt and oil.
suffete: one of two men who headed the Carthaginian state. Elected yearly, they dealt with a range of affairs of state from the political and military to judicial and religious issues. It is extremely unclear whether they had as much power as Roman consuls, but it seems likely that by the third century BC they did not.
tablinum: the office or reception area beyond the atrium. The tablinum usually opened on to an enclosed colonnaded garden, the peristyle.
Tanit: along with Baal Hammon, the pre-eminent deity in Carthage. She was regarded as a mother goddess, and as the patroness and protector of the city.
Taurasia: modern-day Turin.
tesserae: pieces of stone or marble which were cut into roughly cubic shape and fitted closely on to a bed of mortar to form a mosaic. This practice was introduced in the third century BC.
Ticinus: the River Ticino.
Trebia: the River Trebbia.
tribune: senior staff officer within a legion; also one of ten political positions in Rome, where they served as ‘tribunes of the people’, defending the rights of the plebeians. The tribunes could also veto measures taken by the Senate or consuls, except in times of war. To assault a tribune was a crime of the highest order.
trireme: the classic ancient warship, which was powered by a single sail and three banks of oars. Each oar was rowed by one man, who on Roman ships was freeborn, not a slave. Exceptionally manoeuvrable, and capable of up to eight knots under sail or for short bursts when rowed, the trireme also had a bronze ram at the prow. This
was used to damage or even sink enemy ships. Small catapults were also mounted on the deck. Each trireme was crewed by up to 30 men and had around 200 rowers; it could carry up to 60 infantry, giving it a very large crew in proportion to its size. This limited the triremes’ range, so they were mainly used as troop transports and to protect coastlines.
triarii (sing. triarius): the oldest, most experienced soldiers in a legion of the third century BC. These men were often held back until the most desperate of situations in a battle. The fantastic Roman expression ‘Matters have come down to the triarii’ makes this clear. They wore bronze crested helmets, mail shirts and a greave on their leading (left) legs. They each carried a scutum, and were armed with a gladius hispaniensis and a long, thrusting spear.
tunny: tuna fish.
turmae (sing. turma): a cavalry unit of thirty men.
velites (sing. veles): light skirmishers of the third century BC who were recruited from the poorest social class. They were young men whose only protection was a small, round shield, and in some cases, a simple bronze helmet. They carried a sword, but their primary weapons were 1.2 m (4 ft.) javelins. They also wore bear- or wolf-skin headdresses.
Vespera: the first watch of the night.
vilicus: slave foreman or farm manager. Commonly a slave, the vilicus was sometimes a paid worker, whose job it was to make sure that the returns on a farm were as large as possible. This was most commonly done by treating the slaves brutally.
Vinalia Rustica: a Roman wine festival held on 19 August.
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