f During one of the battles in Transylvania against the Habsburgs, he slipped away from the fray to evacuate his bowels only to be ambushed by an Austrian soldier, “so I plopped right into my own filth.” As they fought, they rolled “topsy-turvy” in our hero’s excrement until “I almost became the shitty martyr.” Evliya finally killed the infidel, and managed to pull up his pantaloons “but I was soaked in blood as well as shit and I had to laugh, seeing that I’d become the shitty Ghazi (Islamic warrior).” Afterwards he presented the Austrian’s head to his Pasha, who said, “My Evliya, you smell strangely of shit!” The officers “laughed uproariously” and the Pasha gave him fifty gold pieces and a silver turban-crest.
g Henry Maundrell, Chaplain of the English Levant Company, who visited in 1697, watched the “fury” of the monks as they fought bloodily in the Church. He also described the mania of the Holy Fire as even more demented than it had been a century earlier when Sandys visited: the pilgrims “began to act in such an indecent manner as to expose their nudities, they tumbled about the Sepulchre after the manner of tumblers on stage” lighting their beards—it was “like Bedlam itself.” As for the priests, Maundrell just called them “miracle-mongers.”
CHAPTER 33
The Families
1705–1799
THE HUSSEINIS: THE REVOLT OF THE NAQIB AL-ASHRAF AND THE CANINE POGROM
Armed peasants marauded through the streets. The qadi—the chief judge—backed by the garrison, stormed the prison and took command of Jerusalem. In one of her stranger moments, the city found herself independent: the qadi, in return for bribes, appointed Muhammad ibn Mustafa al-Husseini as head of the city.
Husseini was the chief of Jerusalem’s pre-eminent clan who had risen on the coat-tails of the Farrukhs a century earlier, but he was also the Naqib al-Ashraf, the leader of the families descended from the Prophet, via his grandson Hussein: only the Ashraf could wear the green turban and be addressed as Sayyid.
The Ottomans despatched troops to suppress the revolt who camped outside the walls. Husseini showed that he was ready for a siege, and the troops retreated to Gaza. Inside Jerusalem the rebellion had replaced one tyranny with another. Jews were forbidden to wear white on the Sabbath or Muslim headgear or to have nails in their shoes; Christians suffered similar sartorial restrictions; and both had to make way for Muslims in the streets. Outrageous fines were collected with violence. A messianic sect of 500 Polish Jews from Grodno, led by Judah the Pious, had just arrived. But their rabbi died, and they spoke only Polish or Yiddish, leaving them particularly helpless. They were soon impoverished.
When a stray dog wandered onto the Temple Mount, the qadi ordered the killing of every canine in Jerusalem. As a special humiliation, every Jew and Christian had to deliver dead dogs to a collection point outside the Zion Gate. Gangs of children killed dogs and then gave the carcasses to the nearest infidel.
When a stronger Ottoman army approached, the garrison and the Sufi mystics turned against the rebellion and seized the Tower of David. Husseini fortified himself in his mansion, and they fired arrows at each other for three days. In the ensuing battle, the northern streets of the Old City were strewn with corpses—and Husseini lost more support. Outside, the Ottomans bombarded the Temple Mount. In the middle of the night on 28 November 1705, Husseini realized his game was up and escaped, pursued by the Ottomans. The reign of extortion continued under the new governor. Many Jews, robbed again, simply left, and the Polish Ashkenazis were broken, finally in 1720 facing imprisonment, banishment and bankruptcy, their synagogue in the Jewish Quarter burned down.a The Sephardis—the small, old Jewish community at home in the Arab and Ottoman world—survived.
Husseini was captured and beheaded. After much dynastic rivalry, the Husseinis were later succeeded as naqib by Abd al-Latif al-Ghudayya whose family changed its name sometime in the century and purloined that of the prestigious Husseinis. The Ghudayyas became the new Husseinis, the most powerful of Jerusalem’s ruling families—right up into the twenty-first century.8
THE HUSSEINIS: RISE OF THE FAMILIES
Anyone important who came to Jerusalem during the eighteenth century wished to stay with the chief of this clan, who held open house for peasants, scholars and Ottoman officials alike; it was said he had eighty guests for dinner every night. “Everyone visits him from near and afar,” wrote one such guest to the “palace” of Abd al-Latif al-Ghudayya who dominated Jerusalem. “Strangers find refuge in his home, residing there as they like.” Abd al-Latif’s visitors left Jerusalem escorted by a squadron of his horsemen.
The resurgence of the Husseinis marked the rise of the great Jerusalem Families. Virtually every position of honour in Jerusalem was hereditary. Most of the Families were descended from Sufi sheikhs who had been favoured by one conqueror or another. Most changed their names, invented grandiose genealogies and alternately feuded and intermarried—not unlike their Western equivalents. Each fiercely defended and strived to expand its own lucrative power-base.b But wealth would have been vulgar without scholarship; pedigree powerless without wealth, and position impossible without Ottoman patronage. Sometimes the Families fought it out: two Nusseibehs were ambushed and killed by a Husseini posse near Abu Ghosh, but, typically, the families made peace by marrying the surviving Nusseibeh brother of the victims to the sister of the Mufti of Jerusalem.
Yet even the Families could not ensure prosperity in a Jerusalem scarred by intermittent fighting between the 500-strong Ottoman garrison notorious for its debauchery, raiding Bedouin, rioting Jerusalemites and venal governors. The population shrank to 8,000, preyed upon by the Governor of Damascus who descended on the city annually with a small army to collect the taxes.c
The Jews, without any European backing, suffered bitterly. “The Arabs,” wrote Gedaliah, an Ashkenazi from Poland, “often wrong the Jews publicly. If one of them gives a Jew a blow, the Jew goes away cowering. While an angry Turk would beat a Jew shamefully and dreadfully with his shoes and not one would deliver the Jew.” They lived in squalor, banned from repairing their houses. Two hundred Jewish families took flight: with “the persecutions and extortions increasing every day,” wrote a Jewish pilgrim in 1766, “I had to flee from the city at night. Every day somebody was flung into prison.”
The Christians hated each other much more than they hated the infidels—indeed Father Elzear Horn, a Franciscan, simply called the Greeks “The Vomit.” Each of the sects relished every squalid discomfort and penurious humiliation suffered by their rivals in the Church. Ottoman control and Christian competition meant the 300 permanent residents were locked inside each night; “more like prisoners” than priests in Evliya’s view, living in a state of permanent siege. Food was passed through a hole in the door or winched up via a system of pulleys, to the windows. These monks—most of them Orthodox, Catholic or Armenian—camped in cramped, humid tension, suffering from “headaches, fevers, tumours, diarrhoea, dysentery.” The latrines of the Sepulchre provided a special source of bitterness—and stench: every sect had its own lavatorial arrangements, but the Franciscans, claimed Father Horn, “suffer much from the smell.” The Greeks did not have lavatories at all. Meanwhile the poverty-stricken smaller sects, the Copts, Ethiopians and Syriacs, could afford their food only by performing servile tasks such as emptying the Greek slop-buckets. No wonder the French writer Constantin Volney heard Jerusalemites “have acquired and deserved the reputation of the most evil people in Syria.”
When France again won the praedominium for the Franciscans, the Greek Orthodox hit back. On the night before Palm Sunday 1757, the Greek Orthodox ambushed the Franciscans in the Rotunda of the Sepulchre, “with clubs, maces, hooks, poniards, and swords” that had been hidden behind pillars and under their habits, smashing lamps and ripping tapestries. The Franciscans fled to St. Saviour’s, where they were besieged. These Mafia tactics worked: the sultan switched back to the Greeks, giving them the dominant position in the Church which they still hold today.9 Now Ottoman power collapsed
in Palestine. Starting in Galilee in the 1730s, a Bedouin sheikh, Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, carved out a northern fiefdom, which he ruled from Acre—the only time, except for short-lived rebellions, when a native Palestinian Arab ruled an extended part of Palestine.
THE RISE AND FALL OF THE “KING OF PALESTINE”
In 1770, Ali Bey, an Egyptian general who gloried in the nickname the Cloudsnatcher (which he had won by defeating Bedouin, whom the Ottomans believed were as hard to catch as clouds), allied himself with Sheikh Zahir. Together they conquered most of Palestine, even taking Damascus, but the sultan’s pasha held out in Jerusalem. The Russian empress, Catherine the Great, was at war with the Ottomans and now she despatched a fleet to the Mediterranean, where it defeated the sultan’s navy. The Cloudsnatcher needed Russian help and Russia was only interested in one prize: Jerusalem. The Russian ships bombarded Jaffa then sailed up to attack Beirut. Zahir occupied Jaffa—but could he and the Cloudsnatcher deliver Jerusalem?
Sheikh Zahir sent his troops to invest the city but they were unable to make any impression on the walls. The Ottomans, defeated on all fronts, sued for peace with the Russians. In the peace treaty in 1774, Catherine and her partner Prince Potemkin forced the Ottomans to recognize Russian protection of the Orthodox—and ultimately the growing Russian obsession with Jerusalem would lead to a European war.d The Ottomans could now retake their lost provinces: the Cloudsnatcher was assassinated and Sheikh Zahir, aged eighty-six, had to escape from Acre. As he rode away, he noticed that his favourite concubine was missing—“this is no time to leave a person behind,” he said—and galloped back. As he scooped her up, the girl dragged her ancient lover from his horse and assassins stabbed and beheaded him. The pickled head of the “first King of Palestine” was sent to Istanbul.10 The anarchy now attracted the rising hero of Revolutionary France.
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE: “A KORAN I COMPOSED MYSELF”
On 19 May 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte, twenty-eight years old, pale and gaunt, with long lank hair, set off with 335 ships, 35,000 troops and an academy of 167 scientists to conquer Egypt. “I would found a religion,” he reflected with megalomaniacal arrogance, “I saw myself marching on the way to Asia, mounted on an elephant, a turban on my head, in one hand a new Koran I would have composed myself.”
His adventure was inspired by revolutionary science, cold politics and crusading romance. Everyone in Paris had read the bestselling travelogue by the philosophe, Constantin Volney, who described the “battered ruins of Jerusalem” and the decay of the Ottoman Levant as ripe for conquest by the civilizing reason of the Enlightenment. The French Revolution had tried to destroy the Church and replace Christianity with reason, liberty and even a new cult of the Supreme Being. However, Catholicism had endured and Napoleon aspired to heal the wounds of revolution by fusing together monarchy, faith and science—hence the many scientists on board. Yet it was also about empire: France was at war with England. The expedition was the brainchild of the louche, lame ex-bishop and foreign minister, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, who hoped it would win control of the Mediterranean and cut off British India. If Bonaparte succeeded, all well and good but if he failed, Talleyrand would destroy a rival. As would happen so often in the Middle East, the Europeans expected the orientals to be grateful for their well-intentioned conquest.
Napoleon landed successfully in Egypt, which was still ruled by a caste of hybrid mamluk–Ottoman officers. He swiftly defeated them at the Battle of the Pyramids, but the English admiral Horatio Nelson obliterated the French fleet at Aboukir Bay. Bonaparte had won Egypt, but Nelson had trapped his army in the East and this encouraged the Ottomans to defy him in Syria. If Napoleon was to survive in Egypt, he had to march north and secure Syria.
In February 1799, he invaded Palestine with 13,000 men and 800 camels. On 2 March, as he advanced on Jaffa, his cavalry under General Damas carried out a raid just three miles from Jerusalem. General Bonaparte fantasized about the conquest of the Holy City, reporting to the revolutionary Directorate in Paris: “By the time you read this letter, it’s possible I will be standing in the ruins of Solomon’s Temple.”
a This became known as the Ruin—Hurva—Synagogue, and remained a wreck for over a century. It was reconstructed in the nineteenth century—but destroyed by the Jordanians in 1967.
b These clans were known in English as the Notables, to the Turks as the Effendiya, to the Arabs as the Aya. The Nusseibehs were Custodians of the Church; the Dajanis presided over David’s Tomb; the Khalidis ran the sharia lawcourts; the Husseinis usually dominated as Naqib al-Ashraf, Mufti and Sheikh of the Haram as well as leading the Nabi Musa festival. The Abu Ghosh, warlords of the mountains around Jerusalem, guardians of the pilgrim route from Jaffa, were allies of the Husseinis. Only recent research by Professor Adel Manna has revealed the true story of how the Ghudayyas took over the identity of the Husseinis. The Nusseibehs changed their name from Ghanim; the Khalidis from Deiri; the Jarallahs (who competed for the muftiship with the Husseinis) from Hasqafi. “It is disorienting and perplexing to have to endure a change of name,” admits one of these grandees, Hazem Nusseibeh, ex-Foreign Minister of Jordan, in his memoir The Jerusalemites, “even though it occurred seven centuries ago.”
c The powerful Vali (Governor) of the Vilayet (Province) of Damascus usually ruled Jerusalem and was often the Amir al-Haj, Commander of the annual caravan to Mecca which he funded through his dawra, an armed expedition. At other times, Jerusalem was controlled by the Vali of Sidon who ruled from Acre. Jerusalem was a small district, a Sanjak, under a Sanjak Bey or Mutasallim. Yet Jerusalem’s status changed repeatedly over the next centuries, sometimes becoming an independent district. Ottoman governors ruled with the aid of the qadi (a city judge appointed in Istanbul) and the mufti (the leader appointed by the Grand Mufti of the empire, the Sheikh al-Islam in Istanbul, who wrote fatwa judgements on religious questions) drawn from Jerusalem’s Families. The pashas of Damascus and Sidon were rivals who sometimes fought mini-wars for control of Palestine.
d Potemkin devised the “Greek Project” for Catherine—the Russian conquest of Constantinople (which Russians called Tsargrad) to be ruled by Catherine’s grandson, especially named Constantine. Catherine’s partitioning of Poland brought millions of Jews into the Russian empire for the first time, most of whom were confined in miserable poverty to a Pale of Settlement. But Potemkin, one of the most philo-Semitic leaders in Russian history, was a Christian Zionist who saw the liberation of Jerusalem as part of his Greek Project. In 1787, he created the Israelovsky Regiment of Jewish cavalry to take Jerusalem. A witness, the Prince de Ligne, mocked these ringleted cavalrymen as “monkeys on horseback.” Potemkin died before he could put his schemes into action.
PART EIGHT
Empire
How I should like to visit Jerusalem some time.
—ABRAHAM LINCOLN, in conversation with his wife
The theatre of the most memorable and stupendous events that have ever occurred in the annals of the world.
—JAMES BARCLAY, City of the Great King
No-where is the arch of heaven more pure, intense and cloudless than above the proud heights of Zion. Yet if the traveller can forget he is treading on the grave of the people from whom his religion has sprung, there is certainly no city he will sooner wish to leave.
—W. H. BARTLETT, Walks
Yes I am a Jew and when the ancestors of the Rt. Hon. Gentleman were living as savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the Temple of Solomon.
—BENJAMIN DISRAELI, speech in the House of Commons
See what is done here in the name of religion!
—HARRIET MARTINEAU, Eastern Life
CHAPTER 34
Napoleon in the Holy Land
1799–1806
THE BLUEBEARD OF ACRE
There was nothing between Napoleon and the conquest of Jerusalem—except the Butcher, Ahmet Jazzar Pasha, the warlord of Ottoman Palestine. He had adopted the name Jazzar—Butcher—as a young ma
n and had built his career on the principle that fear motivated men more than anything else.
The Butcher terrorized his territories by mutilating anyone suspected of the slightest disloyalty. An Englishman who visited him at his capital in Acre noticed that he was “surrounded by persons maimed and disfigured. The persons officiating or standing by the doors” were all missing a limb, nose, ear or eye. His Jewish minister, Haim Farhi, “had been deprived of both an ear and an eye” just to be sure. “The number of faces without noses and ears strikes everyone who has visited this part of Syria.” The Butcher called them his “marked men.” He sometimes had his victims’ feet shod with horseshoes. He had walled up some local Christians alive pour encourager les autres and once gathered fifty corrupt officials, ordered them to strip naked, and had his troops hack them into pieces. When he suspected his harem of treason, he killed seven of his own wives, becoming notorious as “the tyrant of Acre, the Herod of his time, the terror of all surrounding nations, the story of Bluebeard realized.”
The Butcher impressed Europeans with his long white beard, his simple robes, the bejewelled dagger at his belt and his rather delicate habit of cutting flowers out of paper which he liked to give as presents. He radiated a macabre charm, telling visitors with a slight smirk: “I trust you found my name respected, even beloved, notwithstanding my severity.” At night, he locked himself in his harem which starred eighteen Slavic blondes.a This old man now faced Napoleon in his prime. The French besieged Jaffa which was the port of Jerusalem and only 20 miles away. Jerusalem was in panic: the Families armed the Jerusalemites; a mob plundered Christian monasteries; the monks had to be imprisoned for their own safety. Outside the walls, General Damas asked Bonaparte for permission to attack the Holy City.1