Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Epigraph
PART ONE - The Frontiersman
CHAPTER ONE - A Short-Lived Family
CHAPTER TWO - Fortune’s Favorite
CHAPTER THREE - Wilderness Mission
CHAPTER FOUR - Bloodbath
CHAPTER FIVE - Shades of Death
CHAPTER SIX - The Soul of an Army
CHAPTER SEVEN - A Votary to Love
CHAPTER EIGHT - Darling of a Grateful Country
PART TWO - The Planter
CHAPTER NINE - The Man of Mode
CHAPTER TEN - A Certain Species of Property
CHAPTER ELEVEN - The Prodigy
CHAPTER TWELVE - Providence
CHAPTER THIRTEEN - A World of His Own
CHAPTER FOURTEEN - The Asiatic Prince
CHAPTER FIFTEEN - A Shock of Electricity
PART THREE - The General
CHAPTER SIXTEEN - The Glorious Cause
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - Magnificent Bluff
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - Land of Freedom
CHAPTER NINETEEN - The Heights
CHAPTER TWENTY - All London Afloat
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE - Disaster
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO - An Indecisive Mind
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE - The Crossing
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR - The Busy Scenes of a Camp
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE - Darkness Visible
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX - Rapping a Demigod over the Knuckles
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN - A Dreary Kind of Place
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT - The Long Retreat
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE - Pests of Society
CHAPTER THIRTY - The Storm Thickens
CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE - The Traitor
CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO - Mutiny
CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE - Plundering Scoundrels
CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR - The World Turned Upside Down
CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE - Man of Moderation
CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX - Closing the Drama with Applause
CHAPTER THIRTY-SEVEN - Cincinnatus
PART FOUR - The Statesman
CHAPTER THIRTY-EIGHT - American Celebrity
CHAPTER THIRTY-NINE - Gentleman Farmer
CHAPTER FORTY - Devil’s Bargain
CHAPTER FORTY-ONE - The Ruins of the Past
CHAPTER FORTY-TWO - A Masterly Hand
CHAPTER FORTY-THREE - A House on Fire
CHAPTER FORTY-FOUR - Rising Sun
CHAPTER FORTY-FIVE - Mounting the Seat
PART FIVE - The President
CHAPTER FORTY-SIX - The Place of Execution
CHAPTER FORTY-SEVEN - Acting the Presidency
CHAPTER FORTY-EIGHT - The Cares of Office
CHAPTER FORTY-NINE - Rays of Genius
CHAPTER FIFTY - The Traveling Presidency
CHAPTER FIFTY-ONE - The State of the President
CHAPTER FIFTY-TWO - Capital Matters
CHAPTER FIFTY-THREE - Southern Exposure
CHAPTER FIFTY-FOUR - Running into Extremes
CHAPTER FIFTY-FIVE - A Tissue of Machinations
CHAPTER FIFTY-SIX - Citizen Genet
CHAPTER FIFTY-SEVEN - Bring Out Your Dead
CHAPTER FIFTY-EIGHT - Hercules in the Field
CHAPTER FIFTY-NINE - Crowns and Coronets
CHAPTER SIXTY - Mad Dog
CHAPTER SIXTY-ONE - The Colossus of the People
CHAPTER SIXTY-TWO - The Master of Farewells
CHAPTER SIXTY-THREE - Exiting the Stage
PART SIX - The Legend
CHAPTER SIXTY-FOUR - Samson and Solomon
CHAPTER SIXTY-FIVE - A Mind on the Stretch
CHAPTER SIXTY-SIX - Freedom
CHAPTER SIXTY-SEVEN - Homecoming
Acknowledgements
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ILLUSTRATION PERMISSIONS
INDEX
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
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First published in 2010 by The Penguin Press, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
Copyright © Ron Chernow, 2010
All rights reserved
Illustration credits appear on pages 869-72.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Chernow, Ron.
Washington : a life / Ron Chernow.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
eISBN : 978-1-101-44418-4
1. Washington, George, 1732-1799. 2. Presidents—United States—Biography. I. Title.
E312.C495 2010
973.4’1092—dc22
[B]
2010019154
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TO VALERIE, IN MEMORIAM
Simple truth is his best, his greatest eulogy.
—ABIGAILADAMS, speaking of George Washington after his death
AUTHOR’S NOTE
Since I quote extensively from George Washington’s vast correspondence, I have taken the liberty of modernizing the spelling and punctuation of the eighteenth-century prose. A biographer hesitates to forfeit the special period flavor that comes from preserving all the oddities of contemporary writing. But all too often, Washington’s muscular style can seem awkward and stilted to modern readers because of the way he distributed his commas, for instance, whereas the writing suddenly becomes smooth and flowing with more familiar punctuation. Occasionally I retain the quirks of the original spelling in order to highlight the eccentricity or lack of education of the personality in question. Throughout the text, the actual wording has been exactly reproduced.
PRELUDE
The Portrait Artist
IN MARCH 1793 Gilbert Stuart cross
ed the North Atlantic for the express purpose of painting President George Washington, the supreme prize of the age for any ambitious portrait artist. Though born in Rhode Island and reared in New-port, Stuart had escaped to the cosmopolitan charms of London during the war and spent eighteen years producing portraits of British and Irish grandees. Overly fond of liquor, prodigal in his spending habits, and with a giant brood of children to support, Stuart had landed in the Marshalsea Prison in Dublin, most likely for debt, just as Washington was being sworn in as first president of the United States in 1789.
For the impulsive, unreliable Stuart, who left a trail of incomplete paintings and irate clients in his wake, George Washington emerged as the savior who would rescue him from insistent creditors. “When I can net a sum sufficient to take me to America, I shall be off to my native soil,” he confided eagerly to a friend. “There I expect to make a fortune by Washington alone. I calculate upon making a plurality of his portraits . . . and if I should be fortunate, I will repay my English and Irish creditors.”1 In a self-portrait daubed years earlier, Stuart presented himself as a restless soul, with tousled reddish-brown hair, keen blue eyes, a strongly marked nose, and a pugnacious chin. This harried, disheveled man was scarcely the sort to appeal to the immaculately formal George Washington.
Once installed in New York, Stuart mapped out a path to Washington with the thoroughness of a military campaign. He stalked Washington’s trusted friend Chief Justice John Jay and rendered a brilliant portrait of him, seated in the full majesty of his judicial robes. Shortly afterward Stuart had in hand the treasured letter of introduction from Jay to President Washington that would unlock the doors of the executive residence in Philadelphia, then the temporary capital.
As a portraitist, the garrulous Stuart had perfected a technique to penetrate his subjects’ defenses. He would disarm them with a steady stream of personal anecdotes and irreverent wit, hoping that this glib patter would coax them into self-revelation. In the taciturn George Washington, a man of granite self-control and a stranger to spontaneity, Gilbert Stuart met his match. From boyhood, Washington had struggled to master and conceal his deep emotions. When the wife of the British ambassador later told him that his face showed pleasure at his forthcoming departure from the presidency, Washington grew indignant: “You are wrong. My countenance never yet betrayed my feelings!”2 He tried to govern his tongue as much as his face: “With me it has always been a maxim rather to let my designs appear from my works than by my expressions.”3
When Washington swept into his first session with Stuart, the artist was awe-struck by the tall, commanding president. Predictably, the more Stuart tried to pry open his secretive personality, the tighter the president clamped it shut. Stuart’s opening gambit backfired. “Now, sir,” Stuart instructed his sitter, “you must let me forget that you are General Washington and that I am Stuart, the painter.” To which Washington retorted drily that Mr. Stuart need not forget “who he is or who General Washington is.”4
A master at sizing people up, Washington must have cringed at Stuart’s facile bonhomie, not to mention his drinking, snuff taking, and ceaseless chatter. With Washington, trust had to be earned slowly, and he balked at instant familiarity with people. Instead of opening up with Stuart, he retreated behind his stolid mask. The scourge of artists, Washington knew how to turn himself into an impenetrable monument long before an obelisk arose in his honor in the nation’s capital.
As Washington sought to maintain his defenses, Stuart made the brilliant decision to capture the subtle interplay between his outward calm and his intense hidden emotions, a tension that defined the man. He spied the extraordinary force of personality lurking behind an extremely restrained facade. The mouth might be compressed, the parchment skin drawn tight over ungainly dentures, but Washington’s eyes still blazed from his craggy face. In the enduring image that Stuart captured and that ended up on the one-dollar bill—a magnificent statement of Washington’s moral stature and sublime, visionary nature—he also recorded something hard and suspicious in the wary eyes with their penetrating gaze and hooded lids.
With the swift insight of artistic genius, Stuart grew convinced that Washington was not the placid and composed figure he presented to the world. In the words of a mutual acquaintance, Stuart had insisted that “there are features in [Washington’s] face totally different from what he ever observed in that of any other human being; the sockets of the eyes, for instance, are larger than he ever met with before, and the upper part of the nose broader. All his features, [Stuart] observed, were indicative of the strongest and most ungovernable passions, and had he been born in the forests, it was his opinion that [Washington] would have been the fiercest man among the savage tribes.” The acquaintance confirmed that Washington’s intimates thought him “by nature a man of fierce and irritable disposition, but that, like Socrates, his judgment and great self-command have always made him appear a man of a different cast in the eyes of the world.”5
Although many contemporaries were fooled by Washington’s aura of cool command, those who knew him best shared Stuart’s view of a sensitive, complex figure, full of pent-up passion. “His temper was naturally high-toned [that is, high-strung], but reflection and resolution had obtained a firm and habitual ascendency over it,” wrote Thomas Jefferson. “If ever, however, it broke its bonds, he was most tremendous in wrath.”6 John Adams concurred. “He had great self-command . . . but to preserve so much equanimity as he did required a great capacity. Whenever he lost his temper, as he did sometimes, either love or fear in those about him induced them to conceal his weakness from the world.”7 Gouverneur Morris agreed that Washington had “the tumultuous passions which accompany greatness and frequently tarnish its luster. With them was his first contest, and his first victory was over himself . . . Yet those who have seen him strongly moved will bear witness that his wrath was terrible. They have seen, boiling in his bosom, passion almost too mighty for man.”8
So adept was Washington at masking these turbulent emotions behind his fabled reserve that he ranks as the most famously elusive figure in American history, a remote, enigmatic personage more revered than truly loved. He seems to lack the folksy appeal of an Abraham Lincoln, the robust vigor of a Teddy Roosevelt, or the charming finesse of a Franklin Roosevelt. In fact, George Washington has receded so much in our collective memory that he has become an impossibly stiff and inflexible figure, composed of too much marble to be quite human. How this seemingly dull, phlegmatic man, in a stupendous act of nation building, presided over the victorious Continental Army and forged the office of the presidency is a mystery to most Americans. Something essential about Washington has been lost to posterity, making him seem a worthy but plodding man who somehow stumbled into greatness.
From a laudable desire to venerate Washington, we have sanded down the rough edges of his personality and made him difficult to grasp. He joined in this conspiracy to make himself unknowable. Where other founders gloried in their displays of intellect, Washington’s strategy was the opposite: the less people knew about him, the more he thought he could accomplish. Opacity was his means of enhancing his power and influencing events. Where Franklin, Hamilton, or Adams always sparkled in print or in person, the laconic Washington had no need to flaunt his virtues or fill conversational silences. Instead, he wanted the public to know him as a public man, concerned with the public weal and transcending egotistical needs.
Washington’s lifelong struggle to control his emotions speaks to the issue of how he exercised leadership as a politician, a soldier, a planter, and even a slave-holder. People felt the inner force of his nature, even if they didn’t exactly hear it or see it; they sensed his moods without being told. In studying his life, one is struck not only by his colossal temper but by his softer emotions: this man of deep feelings was sensitive to the delicate nuances of relationships and prone to tears as well as temper. He learned how to exploit his bottled-up emotions to exert his will and inspire and motivate people. If h
e aroused universal admiration, it was often accompanied by a touch of fear and anxiety. His contemporaries admired him not because he was a plaster saint or an empty uniform but because they sensed his unseen power. As the Washington scholar W. W. Abbot noted, “An important element in Washington’s leadership both as a military commander and as President was his dignified, even forbidding, demeanor, his aloofness, the distance he consciously set and maintained between himself and nearly all the rest of the world.”9
The goal of the present biography is to create a fresh portrait of Washington that will make him real, credible, and charismatic in the same way that he was perceived by his contemporaries. By gleaning anecdotes and quotes from myriad sources, especially from hundreds of eyewitness accounts, I have tried to make him vivid and immediate, rather than the lifeless waxwork he has become for many Americans, and thereby elucidate the secrets of his uncanny ability to lead a nation. His unerring judgment, sterling character, rectitude, steadfast patriotism, unflagging sense of duty, and civic-mindedness—these exemplary virtues were achieved only by his ability to subdue the underlying volatility of his nature and direct his entire psychological makeup to the single-minded achievement of a noble cause.
A man capable of constant self-improvement, Washington grew in stature throughout his life. This growth went on subtly, at times imperceptibly, beneath the surface, making Washington the most interior of the founders. His real passions and often fiery opinions were typically confined to private letters rather than public utterances. During the Revolution and his presidency, the public Washington needed to be upbeat and inspirational, whereas the private man was often gloomy, scathing, hot-blooded, and pessimistic.