To my gaffe-protection force, I extend a very special thank-you. These include my husband Joe; Dr. Lawrence Kennedy, professor of U.S. history with an emphasis in Reconstruction history, urban studies, and race and ethnic studies at the University of Scranton (Pennsylvania); middle school librarian extraordinaire Janice Borland, sixth grade teacher Becky Brown, and retired eighth-grade English teacher Esther Smith at the Garland Independent School District (Garland, Texas). All mistakes are my own.
I thank the following individuals and institutions for their help in obtaining images, documents, and other important resources: Joshua Brown (American Social History Project, City University of New York); the South Carolina Historical Society; the New York Historical Society; the Beck Center Civil War Site at Emory College; Tim Turner, Tourism Coordinator, Giles County Tourism Foundation (Tennessee); George Newman, Giles County Historical Society (Tennessee); Robert Pickett (Vicksburg, Mississippi); Mark Putuck, Southern Poverty Law Center (Montgomery, Alabama); the amazing reference librarians in the Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress; the reference librarians at the National Archives; and Roxanne Loney at the Scranton Public Library.
Susan Campbell Bartoletti
June 2009
Index
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I |J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X |Y | Z
Page numbers in bold type refer to illustrations and their captions.
A
African Americans. See freedmen; slaves Amnesty Act, 142
Avary, Myrta Lockhart, 93, 130
Avery, Edward, 137
B
Belefont, Charles, 66–67
Black Codes, 20, 20–21, 22
black militia company attacks on, 122–27
charter of, 116, 121
drills and patrols, 122
governor’s order to disarm, 124
guns, 121–24
blacks. See freedmen; slaves
Blair, Francis P., 66
Bond, Hugh, 139
Bost, W. L., 82
Bratton, James Rufus, 126, 137
Brown, Henry Edwards, 100
Brown, Mary Davis, 124
Brown, William Garrott, 94
Burnett, W. P., 49
Butler, Benjamin, 130
C
Carroll, Milus, 117, 125–27, 130, 139
churches
attacks on, 110, 113–14, 114, 115, 116
as center of community, 108
establishment of schools, 90, 91
failure of whites to defend, 118–19
political meetings in, 108, 109–12, 113–14, 117–18
preachers, 107, 113
style of worship, 112, 112–13
temporary locations, 108–9, 110
worship under slavery, 107–8, 108, 111
Civil Rights Acts
of 1866 (citizenship and equal protection), 22, 22, 59–60, 141
of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act), 129, 129–30
of 1964 (ban on discrimination), 149
civil rights movement, 149
civil rights timeline, 151–56
Civil War
black Union soldiers, 39, 121, 144
casualties and cost, 14, 15, 17, 30
Chickamauga battle, 30, 30
destruction of South, 2, 2–3, 8, 8, 15, 15, 95
Fort Pillow massacre, 39
friends and relatives on opposing sides, 13–14
Memorial Day observances of, 144, 144–46
Missionary Ridge battle, 15
Sherman’s march to the sea, 8
surrender of Confederacy, 6, 6
Clansman, The (Dixon), 147, 147
Clayton, Victoria, 8
Coleman, Daniel, 28, 49–50
Coleman, John Tayloe, 84, 85
Confederacy. See also South
casualties in war, 14, 14, 15, 30
paper money, 9
surrender to Union, 6, 6
war debts, 9
Confederates. See also Southern whites
amnesty for, 142
presidential pardon and oath of loyalty, 18, 19, 38, 38
voting rights, 18, 24, 38–39, 142
Congress. See United States Congress Cooper, Robert E., 119
Craig, Patrick, 98
Crowe, James R., 13, 13, 26
D
Davis, Jacob, 53
Democrats
fear of black political power, 71
Jim Crow laws, 144
Nashville state convention, 43–44
white supremacy platform, 65, 66
Dixon, Thomas, 147, 147
Douglass, Frederick, 143–44, 150
Dox, Peter, 137
Du Bois, W. E. B., iv, 57, 58
E
education
attacks on schools and teachers, 97–105, 101, 136
black illiteracy at end of war, 93
black teachers, 91
church-established schools, 90, 91
establishment of schools by
Freedmen’s Bureau, 90, 91, 105
Freedmen’s Second Reader, 94
Northern teachers, 89–91, 93
objections to education of blacks, 93–96
preachers as teachers, 109
school attendance, 106
school desegregation, 143
spread of learning to elders, 105, 106
Emancipation Proclamation, 3, 4
Evans, Ann Ulrich, 32
Evers, Medgar, 148
Ezell, Lorenza, 42, 69
F
Federal Hate Crimes Law, 149
Fifteenth Amendment, 74, 75
Ford, Sarah, 12
Forrest, Nathan Bedford
on disenfranchisement of Southern whites, 38–39, 39
immunity from prosecution, 137–38
on Klan membership, 49, 57
leadership of Klan, 47
order to disband Klan, 74–75, 138
presidential pardon of, 39
promotion of Klan throughout South, 51
statue of, 163
threat against Republicans, 58, 67
on vigilantism in South, 47–49
Fourteenth Amendment, 37, 59, 62, 129, 142–43
freedmen. See also churches; education; voting by blacks
achievements, 78, 119
arming of, 98–99, 121–24
Black Code restrictions on, 20, 20–21, 22
challenge to white authority, 22–23
departure from plantations, 18–19
hopes for future, 87
move to Liberia, 134, 135
retaliation against whites, 116–18, 123
sharecropping, 78, 78–82, 85–88
violence against, 23, 23, 30–33, 31, 33, 52, 86, 86–87
work as families, 77, 78–79
work for former masters, 77–78
Freedmen’s Bureau
beneficiaries of, 36
creation and expansion of, 34–35
establishment of schools, 90, 91, 105
improvement of working conditions for blacks, 77
limited resources, 80
presidential opposition to, 34, 35
protection of blacks, 81
Freeman, Mittie (formerly Mittie Williams), 1–2, 7, 150
G
Garner, George, 82
Gelray, Joseph W., 84
Gholson, Samuel, 8
Gleed, Robert, 66
Grant, James, 55–56, 113
Grant, Ulysses S.
action against Klan, 131, 136
pardon of Klansmen, 142
presidential election, 62, 63, 69, 70
signing of Ku Klux Klan Act, 128–29, 129
surrender of Confederacy to, 6, 6
Green Isaiah, 65
H
Harrill, John, 55
Harris, Frederick, 139
Hayes, Rutherford B., 143
Henry, Jefferson Franklin, 88
Hill, Elias, 63, 107, 118, 134
/>
Hines, Gabe, 76
Horton, Samuel, 55
Huggins, Allen P., 84
J
Jackson, Martin, 11, 140
James, Fred, 80
Jim Crow laws, 144
Johnson, Andrew
disputes with Republicans over Reconstruction, 21, 21, 35, 59–60
impeachment proceedings against, 60, 60–61
opposition to Fourteenth Amendment, 59
pardon of Confederates, 18, 38, 38
presidency, 11, 17
reconstruction of South, 17–18
stance on war and Reconstruction, 17
veto of Civil Rights Act, 22, 59–60
veto of Freedmen’s Bureau expansion, 34, 35
veto of Reconstruction Acts, 59–60
Johnson, Henry, 71
Jolly, William, 56
Jones, Calvin, 13, 13, 25, 26
Judkins, Oscar, 97
Justice, James, 54
K
Kennedy, John (Klan founder), 13, 13, 25
Ku Klux Klan
arrests and prosecutions of Klansmen, 136–39, 141–42
birthplace of, 16, 16, 162
corrupt officials in, 83–84, 115, 128
costume, 26, 27, 28, 54, 56, 103
cross-burning, 147, 168
decline in power, 150
favorable publicity for, 50
ghost scare tactics, 30–32, 42
glorified history of, 146–47, 147
inception and naming of, 25
induction of new members, 29, 53, 73–74
as Invisible Empire, 46
leader of, 47
leadership positions and titles, 2526, 46–47
membership, 49, 51, 56–58, 138
obedience of members, 55–56
as paramilitary organization, 43, 43–44
party crashing, 27–28
Prescript (outline of principles), 44, 44–45, 45, 47, 72–73
racism in inception of, 34, 45–46
raids, 54–55
rebirth of, 147–50, 148, 168
rites and rituals, 25–26, 26, 45, 45, 53
secrecy and mysteriousness, 28, 55
testimony against, 131–36, 136
warning notices to victims, 50–51, 84, 85, 110
women’s support of, 51–52
Ku Klux Klan Act (Civil Rights Act of 1871), 129, 129–30, 132
L
Lee, Robert E., 6, 6
Lester, John C., 13
on bad Klansmen, 47
denial of political agenda, 34
on Forrest’s order to disband Klan, 74
job and title in Klan, 26
justification for formation of Klan, 26
on Klan’s den, 27
on Klan’s initiation rites, 29
on Klan’s mysteriousness, 28
on Ku Klux Klan name, 25
return from war, 13, 16
suggestion to form Klan, 25
Liberia, 134, 135
Lincoln, Abraham, 3, 4, 11, 11
Lipscomb, Daniel, 134
Lipscomb, Henry, 69, 133
Little, Green, 98
Liuzzo, Viola, 149
Long, Burton, 65
Luke, William, 97–100, 100
lynchings
of black militia leader, 126–27, 127
during twentieth century, 144, 148
of whites, 99–100, 100, 127
M
McBride, Cornelius, 91, 103–5, 134–36
McCord, Frank, 13, 25, 41
McCord, Luther, 28
McCrea, George, 87–88
Meacham, Robert, 71, 80
Merrill, Lewis M., 128
Merritt, Susan, 120
militia company, black. See black militia company
N
Northerners. See also Republicans
carpetbaggers, 18
disbelief in stories of Klan violence, 89, 89
establishment of schools in South, 89–91, 93
opposition to education of blacks, 93, 96–97
O
Obama, Barack, 156
Owens, William, 56–57
P
Pearce, Charles H., 63, 109–10
Pelham, Charles, 100
Phillips, Wendell, 91
Pickens, William, 106
public schools. See education
R
racism. See white supremacy
Rainey, Julia, 125
Randolph, Ryland, 50, 51, 53, 101
Reconstruction
corruption by Republican officials, 137
disputes between president and
Congress over, 21, 21, 35, 59–60
end of, 143
ideals of, 7
Lincoln’s call for, 11
military districts, 36–37, 37
Reconstruction Acts, 35–37, 37, 59–60
Southern whites’ concerns about, 16–17
start of, 17–18, 21
Reed, Richard, 13, 25, 26
religion. See churches
Republicans. See also United States Congress
blame of South for war, 17
corruption among, 137
disputes with president over Reconstruction, 21, 21, 35, 59–60
establishment of Freedmen’s Bureau, 34–35
freedmen affiliation with, 63, 65–66, 67, 115
Klan terrorism against, 66, 67, 127
Roundtree, Doc, 85
S
Savery, William, 100
Sayre, P. T., 80
Schofield, John, 80
schools. See education
Schurz, Carl, 95
Scott, Robert K., 116, 121, 124
Self, William, 139
Seymour, Horatio, 62, 66, 70
sharecropping, 78, 78–82, 85–88
Shaw, Sarah Frances, 92
slaves
abolition of slavery (Thirteenth Amendment), 3, 21–22
control and intimidation of, 31
liberation of, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12
life under Confederacy, 87
ownership and value of, 7–8
plantation work, 1–2
religious services, 107–8, 108, 111
South. See also Confederacy; Reconstruction
agricultural economy, 3, 9
Black Codes, 20, 20–21, 22
elected black officials, 71
idealized history of, 146, 146–47
Jim Crow laws, 144
lack of legal justice for blacks, 83–84, 84
military rule, 36–37, 37, 39–40, 101–2, 145
poverty, 9–10, 94, 95
racial etiquette, 10–11, 22
racial tension, 23–24
readmission to Union, 37, 61–62
wartime destruction of, 3, 8, 8, 15, 15, 95
Southern Poverty Law Center, 150, 168
Southern whites
cheating of sharecroppers, 79, 79–80
despair and sense of loss, 13–14, 14
economic classes, 1, 48
fear of freedmen, 24, 49, 111–13
financial losses, 8, 8–9
poverty, 9–10, 93, 94, 95
scalawags, 66
school attendance, 106
voting rights, 18, 24, 38–39
white supremacy beliefs, 7, 10, 10, 22, 45, 83, 93
Stanton, Edwin, 60
Stevens, Thaddeus, 61
Sullivan, Moses, 114
Summer, Charles, 35
T
Tait, Christenberry, 56