47. when one lacks a sound philosophical education … numerous examples: Aratus’ liberal education (ch. 3) apparently did not extend to philosophical studies. The importance of philosophical training is a recurring theme in Plutarch (General Introduction III).
48. Dyme … Tritaea: Two Achaean cities (modern Kato Achaia and Tritaia), both in the western Peloponnese.
49. the king: Plutarch writes just ‘the king’, but here he can mean only Antigonus Gonatas (see M. Holleaux, Hermes 41 (1906), pp. 475–8). Antigonus hoped to bring Aratus within his orbit, and there is evidence that he succeeded: Aratus went on to scheme against Alexander of Corinth (note 82), who had recently rebelled against Antigonus (ch. 18).
50. Methone: Presumably modern Modon, at the extreme southwest of the Peloponnese, but this is not near the Gulf of Malia (Malea).
51. Hydria: Modern Hydra, an island south of Argos.
52. enemy territory … a garrison there: Antigonus is now an enemy because this episode comes after his enemy Alexander of Corinth (note 82) became an ally of the Achaeans. It was perhaps this change in the political landscape that required Aratus to look towards Egypt instead of Macedon for patronage. In any case, Plutarch has displaced this episode.
53. Timanthes: Perhaps the painter mentioned again in ch. 32.
54. Roman ship: A commercial vessel not a military one.
55. Caria: A region in southwest Asia Minor.
56. drawings … from Greece: It was natural for guest-friends (ch. 4) to exchange gifts. It is an indication of Aratus’ personal wealth that, even while a teenaged exile in Argos, he could send presents of exquisite art to the Egyptian king.
57. Pamphilus … Melanthus: Pamphilus of Sicyon was a distinguished painter of the fourth century BC; Melanthus was his son: see Pliny, Natural History 35.76–7, and Griffin, Sikyon, pp. 148–9.
58. Sicyon’s … paintings: Their history is reviewed by Griffin, Sikyon, pp. 147–57.
59. Apelles: Apelles of Colophon was the most famous of ancient painters. He flourished in the late fourth century BC.
60. Aristratus: Mentioned by Demosthenes (18.48 and 18.294–5) but is not there called a tyrant.
61. Philip: Philip II (382–336) was king of Macedon and father of Alexander the Great.
62. Polemon: A geographer of the second century BC; a section of his (now lost) work dealt with Sicyon and in particular with Sicyonian art.
63. Neacles: The leading Sicyonian artist of his day; see Pliny, Natural History 35.102–3, and Griffin, Sikyon, pp. 152–3.
64. remainder … instalments: The payments were extended as a means of ensuring Aratus’ continued loyalty; Ptolemy’s successor paid Aratus an annual subsidy of 6 talents (ch. 41).
65. arbiter … harmony to the city: Cicero (On Duties 81–2) provides a somewhat fuller account of Aratus’ procedure in resolving these matters, concluding (at On Duties 83): ‘What a great man, and one worthy to have been born in our republic!’
66. Pillars of Heracles: These are the promontories at the Straits of Gibraltar and a routine literary expression for the far west or even the ends of the world.
67. Saviour Gods: Although this expression often refers to the Dioscuri, it is also widely used to refer to local tutelary gods and that may be the case here.
68. during the banquet … as a friend: This anecdote is dubious and difficult to date. One proposal is that this episode occurred during the Isthmian Games of 250, but that leaves little time for Aratus to have made his visit to Egypt. If later, however, then it must have taken place after the death of Alexander of Corinth in 245. By then, Ptolemy II had also died (in 246) and there was a new king on the Egyptian throne. In that same year Aratus was general of the Achaeans.
69. Ptolemy: Because Antigonus’ effort to discredit Aratus cannot be securely dated (see above), it is unclear whether this is Ptolemy II or Ptolemy III Euergetes (c. 284–221).
70. elected general … for the first time: For 245/4.
71. Locris and Calydon: Locris Ozolia and Calydon lie across the Gulf of Corinth from Achaea.
72. they were defeated: The Boeotians, encouraged by the Achaeans to resist the Aetolians, had detached Phocis from the Aetolians, which naturally prompted retaliation. The Boeotians turned to the Achaeans for aid. In the aftermath of their defeat at Chaeronea the Boeotians became allies of the Aetolians (Polybius 20.4).
73. Chaeronea: Located in northwest Boeotia, this was Plutarch’s native city.
74. boeotarch: The chief magistrate elected each year by the Boeotian League. Even on the basis of our meagre references to the man, it is clear that Aboeocritus was a distinguished person: see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 3, p. 67.
75. once again general: For 243/2.
76. the Acrocorinth: A steep and almost impregnable cliff overlooking the city of Corinth.
77. Chares: (c. 400–c. 325) While serving as a mercenary to the rebellious satrap Artabazus he defeated the army of the Persian king, Artaxerxes III, in 356 (Diodorus 16.22.1–2).
78. the Great King: This is the standard means in Greek of referring to the king of Persia.
79. Pelopidas … Thrasybulus … slayer of tyrants: Pelopidas (c. 410–364) liberated Thebes from tyrants in 379 (Pelopidas 7–14); Thrasybulus (d. 388) liberated Athens from a narrow oligarchy when he defeated the Spartan-installed oligarchy known as the Thirty Tyrants in 403. Plutarch also pairs up their achievements at Pelopidas 13.
80. the Isthmus: I.e. the Isthmus of Corinth.
81. the younger Philip: Philip V (238–179), king of Macedon and a principal figure in this Life (chs. 46–54). On the so-called ‘fetter of Greece’, see further Flamininus 10.
82. the Acrocorinth belonged to Alexander: Alexander had commanded the garrison at the Acrocorinth as an officer of Antigonus Gonatas (who was also his uncle), but around 249 he revolted, made himself independent and formed an alliance with the Achaean League. He died in 245. See the discussion by Walbank in CAH vii.1, pp. 247–8.
83. Nicaea: Livy (35.26.5) may refer to this Nicaea (though Livy calls her the wife of Craterus, Alexander’s father). If this is the same woman, she will very likely have been in her early forties.
84. Demetrius: Demetrius II (c. 276–229), father of Philip V; he became king of Macedon in 239.
85. Amoebeus: A celebrated citharoedus (that is, a singer who accompanied himself on the cithara); see Moralia 443a and Athenaeus 14.623d.
86. Persaeus: Persaeus of Citium (c. 306–c. 243), a Stoic philosopher who was a ward and later a pupil of Zeno. When Zeno was invited to the court of Antigonus Gonatas, Persaeus was sent instead and there became an influential courtier.
87. after Alexander made an alliance … desisted: See notes 52 and 82.)
88. after they had stolen some gold … business: It was their intention to exchange gold coins for silver ones, which would be less incriminating. The brothers involved in this theft and the following episode are not otherwise known.
89. burglars and traitors alike: A pun – the word used here for burglar literally describes someone who penetrates the walls of a private house, to be contrasted with someone who betrays a city’s or a citadel’s walls (i.e. a traitor).
90. Phocion … Epaminondas: Phocion the Good (402–318), a leading Athenian statesman and general; his integrity is stressed at Phocion 18, 21 and 30 (and see also Alexander 39). On Epaminondas see General Introduction II. His incorruptibility is attested at Philopoemen 3 and Alexander 39.
91. Ornis: Greek for bird; the location of this place is unknown.
92. sanctuary of Hera: Both Herodotus (5.92) and Pausanias (2.4.6) mention a temple to Hera at Corinth, but its location is unknown.
93. Archelaus: Not otherwise known.
94. Aratus’ army arrived from Sicyon: Aratus captured the Acrocorinth in the summer of 243.
95. holding his spear … rest … on his weapon: A familiar posture in Greek sculpture; Plutarch’s description here is perhaps inspired by a statue of Aratus.
96. restored the keys … since the days of Philip: This is our sole evidence for this claim, but Philip II may well have taken control of the Acrocorinth after the battle of Chaeronea in 338.
97. Theophrastus: Otherwise unknown.
98. Cenchreae: One of Corinth’s ports (modern Kechries); it lay on the Saronic Gulf about 4¼ miles (7 km) southeast of the city. According to Pausanias (2.8.4 and 7.8.3), Persaeus did not escape but was killed in the fighting.
99. ‘this doctrine of Zeno’s … young Sicyonian’: Zeno of Citium (334–262) was the founder of Stoicism and the teacher of Persaeus (note 86). He put much emphasis on the wise man and his perfections (Diogenes Laertius 7.116–26), including the view that the wise man was infallible and therefore expert in important matters (7.122) and capable of doing all things well (7.125). Persaeus does not here impugn Aratus, but instead offers himself as a proof that a wise man may still be a poor general.
100. This anecdote … related by numerous authors: Athenaeus (4.162d) attributes the sentiment that only the wise man can be a good general to a dialogue by Persaeus. Plutarch’s anecdote is not attested elsewhere.
101. Lechaeum: A Corinthian port (modern Lechaio), about 3 miles (4 km) west of the city on the Gulf of Corinth.
102. Philopoemen … ‘the last of the Greeks’: Philopoemen was Aratus’ successor as the leading figure in the Achaean League (see Philopoemen). The saying cited by Plutarch is repeated at Philopoemen 1, and occurs also at Pausanias 8.52.1.
103. Megara: A city on the Isthmus of Corinth, lying opposite the island of Salamis.
104. Troezen and Epidaurus: A city (modern Trizina) near Argos and another (modern Epidavros) lying on the Saronic Gulf.
105. reason to … revolt: Aratus invaded Attica in 242. At this time, Athens was under Macedonian hegemony.
106. Ptolemy: Ptolemy III Euergetes. The position of hegemon seems in this instance to have been purely honorary. Ptolemy provided Aratus an annual subsidy of 6 talents (ch. 41), although around 225 he transferred it to Cleomenes (Polybius 2.51).
107. ally … increase of the Achaean League: Plutarch concentrates his narrative on the expansion of the Achaean League. He does not report that, in reaction to Aratus’ success, Macedon aligned itself with the Aetolian League or that, in response to this, the Achaean League and Sparta made an alliance; see Walbank in CAH vii.1, pp. 251–5.
108. Aristomachus: He had aided Antigonus Gonatas in his attempts to defeat Alexander of Corinth (Inscriptiones Graecae II (2nd edn, 1940), 774) and remained a Macedonian ally (the alliance with Macedon continued with his son: ch. 26). Around 241 the Achaean League made peace with Macedon and Aetolia. If this plot was formed afterwards, Aratus’ covert involvement was a provocation.
109. Aeschylus and Charimenes: Both otherwise unknown.
110. Aristippus: He and his successor, Aristomachus (ch. 29), were sons of the assassinated Aristomachus.
111. Aratus called up … Argives themselves: Aratus attempted to exploit Aristomachus’ assassination to seize Argos, but was unsuccessful. This occurred in 240, after peace had been established with Macedon, and the Achaean League’s naked aggression (Aratus was general at the time) threatened to rupture the accord – hence the Mantineans’ condemnation of the league. Aratus also attacked the Piraeus (ch. 33), another piece of naked aggression despite the peace with Macedon.
112. habituated to their servitude … over to his side: This reaction on the part of the Argives, along with their inaction when later the Achaeans attempted to liberate them (ch. 27), perhaps suggests that the people of Argos were disinclined to be brought into the Achaean League.
113. Mantineans: People of Mantinea, an Arcadian city in the central Peloponnese.
114. 30 minas: This amounts to half a talent, a modest sum for a state to be fined.
115. He would then retreat … like a serpent: Plutarch repeats this passage, nearly word for word, at Moralia 781d–e.
116. perpetual authority … to this present day: See chs. 1 and 54 (which reprises the sentiment of this passage).
117. Nemean Games: Panhellenic games managed by Argos and held every other year at the sanctuary of Zeus at Nemea.
118. the tyrant attacked him … until nightfall: This assault, like the battles described in chs. 28–9, very likely happened in 235 (after the death of Antigonus Gonatas in 239, which is not mentioned by Plutarch until ch. 34).
119. Chares: The modern River Charadros.
120. Cleonae: A city close to Nemea and southwest of Corinth (modern Archaies Kleones).
121. Not long after this: Still the year 235.
122. Mycenae: A major power in prehistoric Greece and in Homeric legend; located 6 miles (11 km) north of Argos, it was by this period a modest city.
123. Deinias: Deinias of Argos composed a history (now lost) of Argos down to his own times. He may be the same Deinias who helped to assassinate Abantidas of Sicyon (ch. 3), in which case he was an older contemporary of Aratus.
124. Agias: Not otherwise known but very likely the Macedonian commander of ‘the king’s troops’ mentioned in this sentence. This king was Demetrius II not Antigonus Gonatas (the episode took place after Antigonus’ death).
125. the younger Aristomachus: See note 110.
126. vertigo: This word, Greek iliggos, can also refer to bowel trouble.
127. Lydiades: (d. 227) He became tyrant of Megalopolis around 244, perhaps with Macedonian assistance.
128. enrolled … in the Achaean League: In 235, around which time Cleomenes became king in Sparta (see Introduction).
129. elected him general: For 234/3.
130. ambitious nature … against the Lacedaemonians: Lacedaemonian is another expression for Spartan. Lydiades’ expedition was not merely a matter of personal competitiveness: Megalopolis had a tradition of hostility against Sparta. Aratus’ opposition was apparently enough to block this initiative.
131. general for a second time: For 232/1.
132. general … for the third time: For 230/29.
133. his own character was artificial: See also ch. 35. This view of Lydiades, attributed to the Achaeans and no doubt derived from Aratus’ Memoirs, was not necessarily Plutarch’s own (ch. 37, Cleomenes 6 and Moralia 552b).
134. cuckoo … hawk: That cuckoos could change into hawks was deemed by some to be a biological reality: see e.g. Aristotle, Animal History 563b.
135. do battle … territory: In 241. At this time Megara was part of the Achaean League.
136. Agis: Agis IV (c. 262–241), who became king in Sparta around 244. Plutarch wrote a Life of Agis.
137. Lacedaemonians … urging … to fight: Aratus had sought help from Sparta, at the time an ally of the Achaean League, but in the end he courteously dismissed Agis, who was, according to Plutarch (Agis 15), unperturbed by Aratus’ unwillingness to fight.
138. policy: The advantage of Aratus’ policy here is not immediately obvious, unless Plutarch is anticipating Aratus’ détente with Aetolia in ch. 33.
139. Geranian mountains: In the Isthmus of Corinth, southwest of Megara.
140. Pellene: An Achaean city near Sicyon. Its location was near the modern village of Zugra.
141. wooden image … reason: Polyaenus (Stratagems 8.59) tells a roughly similar story involving a priestess of Athena.
142. Aratus mentions nothing like any of this: It seems he was generally unimpressed by prodigies and related matters (ch. 43).
143. Timanthes: Possibly Aratus’ friend, mentioned in ch. 12.
144. Pantaleon: The son of Pleuron, he was general in the Aetolian League five times during the period 240–210.
145. alliance between the two leagues: Made apparently after the death of Antigonus in 239; it may have been stimulated by that event. Thereafter both leagues were hostile to Demetrius II.
146. liberate Athens: Aratus’ previous assault on Athens is described in ch. 24.
147. truce … attempt to capture the Piraeus: In 239 the Achaean League initiated an aggressive pol
icy against Macedonian allies in Greece, especially against Athens and Argos, which ruptured the peace established around 241. The Achaean campaign against Athens was assisted by the Aetolians, whose naval forces also raided Attica.
148. attack on the Acrocorinth: See ch. 18.
149. Thriasian plain: Immediately to the west of Athens.
150. for this injury: See also Cleomenes 16.
151. Antigonus died: Antigonus Gonatas died in 239.
152. Phylacia … Bithys: The location of Phylacia is uncertain but it lay in Achaea. This was a Macedonian invasion, which probably took place in 233. No more is known about Bithys, unless he is the Bithys who was the recipient of an honorary decree by the Athenians (Syll. 476).
153. Diogenes: A major figure in Athens during this time and instrumental in the city’s regaining its independence. He was honoured as the city’s benefactor and granted a special seat in the theatre; a festival and a gymnasium were also named in his honour. But little more is known of him.
154. the Academy: Plato’s Academy lay approximately a mile (2 km) outside Athens’ walls. This was another Achaean assault which failed to take the city.
155. death of Demetrius: In 229. In the immediate aftermath, Macedon was beset by numerous military crises and this led to the Athenians’ defection. Despite Aratus’ exertions, Athens did not join the Achaean League.
156. another man: Lydiades, during his third and final generalship in 230/29.
157. Munychia … Sunium: A steep, fortified hill in the Piraeus (modern Kastella), and a headland (modern Cape Sounion), at the southernmost tip of Attica.
158. Aegina … Hermione: Aegina is an island in the Saronic Gulf. Hermione (modern Ermioni), a town near Argos, was ruled by the tyrant Xenon, who abdicated and led his city into the Achaean League; this was probably in the aftermath of Argos’ union with the Achaean League (Polybius 2.44.6, Strabo 8.7.3, and see ch. 35).
159. neighbouring enemies: The Dardanians, who dwelt north of Macedon and with whom the Macedonians were in continual conflict.
160. Aratus … long-standing pursuit: See chs. 25–9.
161. to emulate Lydiades: See ch. 30.