61. he would rather do what was right … unpunished: Also cited at Moralia 198d.
62. he was prepared to forgive … except his own: Also cited at Moralia 198e.
63. sent three ambassadors to Bithynia: Sent in 149 (the year of Cato’s death) in order to prevent a war between Bithynia and Pergamum.
64. a delegation … a heart: Early Romans often associated the heart with intelligence. The remark was well known: see e.g. Polybius 36.14.2 and Livy, Summary of Book 20.
65. Scipio … approached him … exiles from Achaea: See also Moralia 199e. These Greek exiles were leading Achaeans deported to Italy in 167 after the Third Macedonian War (Polybius was in fact one of them). They were allowed to return to Greece in 150 or 149. Here, Scipio Africanus is Polybius’ friend Scipio Aemilianus, consul in 147 and in 134.
66. ‘poor old Greeks … buried … their own’: Of the original thousand who were deported, only about 300 were by this point still alive (Pausanias 7.10.12).
67. Odysseus … Cyclops’ cave … left behind: The reference is to Odysseus’ escape from the man-eating Polyphemus in Book 9 of the Odyssey.
68. blush rather than turn pale: See also Moralia 29e, 198e and 528f. Blushing was the mark of a wholesome sense of propriety and shame, whereas a pallor, which often indicated illness or disease, was routinely the sign of an intense sexual infatuation.
69. used his hands … when it came to fighting: Also cited at Moralia 198e. Cato’s point is that soldiers should not steal from one another while on the march and should not run away during combat.
70. ‘everything … devoted to the belly’: During his censorship, Cato removed Lucius Veturius from the equestrian ranks because he was excessively fat; see Gellius 7.22 and 17.2.
71. palate was so much more … developed than his heart: Also cited at Moralia 14d. Once again, ‘heart’ refers to intelligence.
72. a lover’s soul lives in the body of his beloved: See also Moralia 759c. This is unclear. Possibly Cato’s point is that a lover is useless as a soldier because his soul, which in Latin will have been animus, also meaning courage, has escaped his own body – the excellent suggestion of Sansone, Plutarch: The Lives of Aristeides and Cato, p. 212.
73. intestate for a whole day: Wills were important in Roman society and to die intestate was disgraceful; see E. Champlin, Final Judgements: Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200 BC–AD 250 (1991). Still, Cato’s regrets here seem fairly minor, which was presumably the point.
74. ‘Old age is vile … vice’: Also cited at Moralia 199a, 784a and 829f.
75. allotted the province … known as Nearer Spain: In 195. Cato’s province was Hispania Citerior, Nearer Spain. He was still consul when he went to his province, although his delay in departing Rome had been lengthy. His Spanish campaign is described at Livy 34.8–21.
76. Celtiberians: A populous and warlike people inhabiting north central Spain; they were finally subdued by Scipio Aemilianus in 133.
77. pay barbarians to come to their rescue: In fact Cato’s opponents had hired Celtiberian mercenaries, and Cato attempted to detach them by way of this payment (Livy 34.19.4). In the end, however, they refused. See Astin, Cato the Censor, pp. 43–4.
78. If the Romans won … to pay it: Repeated at Moralia 199c and also preserved by Frontinus, Stratagems 4.7.35.
79. In the battle … successful: We know of no battle following these negotiations and in fact it appears Cato withdrew to fight elsewhere (Livy 34.19.9).
80. Polybius records …: This section of Polybius is lost but the information is also reported at Livy 34.17.11 and Appian, Wars in Spain 41.
81. Baetis: The modern Guadalquivir, but Plutarch is in error here: the cities in question were actually north of the River Ebro; see Walbank, Commentary, vol. 3, p. 63.
82. captured more cities than he stayed days in Spain: This improbable claim is also cited at Moralia 199c.
83. a pound of silver: According to Livy (34.46.3), Cato distributed 270 asses to each soldier, a far smaller quantity of money than Plutarch mentions, but still a very generous bounty by the standards of the day; see Astin, Cato the Censor, p. 53.
84. ‘I do not blame … most greedy’: See also Moralia 199d.
85. Paccius: Known only from this passage.
86. Scipio … governor of the province: Although Scipio Africanus was again consul in 194, he had nothing to do with Spain in that year. Instead, he campaigned in northern Italy. Plutarch (like Nepos, Cato 2.2) has confused Africanus with Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, who was praetor in 194 when he was governor of Farther Spain (Hispania Ulterior). There he won a major victory and was afterwards elected consul for 191 (and celebrated a triumph in that year).
87. Scipio … cut short Cato’s term of office: The issue between the two remains unclear but it appears that Scipio complained about the way in which Cato departed his province.
88. Lacetanians: A tribe dwelling on the northeast coast of Spain (Livy 34.20). Nothing further is known about Cato’s execution of deserters, unless Plutarch has in mind Cato’s execution of outlaws mentioned by Livy (34.21).
89. Cato … honoured with a triumph: In 194. It is described by Livy (34.46.2–3).
90. Sempronius … Danube: Tiberius Sempronius Longus was consul in 194. He, along with Scipio Africanus, campaigned in northern Italy. It is just possible that Cato moved directly from his triumph into service as Sempronius’ legate (though Plutarch is our only evidence for it), but he certainly did not make his way along the Danube or into Thrace (since Sempronius did not campaign there).
91. military tribune under Manius Acilius: Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul in 191. Like Cato, Glabrio was a New Man. It appears that Valerius Flaccus also served as a tribune of the soldiers in this war (Polybius 20.10.10). Other ex-consuls on Glabrio’s staff included Titus Flamininus and Sempronius Longus.
92. Antiochus the Great: Antiochus III, see Philopoemen, note 100.
93. Seleucus Nicator: Seleucus I Nicator (‘the Conqueror’; c. 358–281) was the founder of the Seleucid empire.
94. restoration of Greek liberties … domination of Philip of Macedon: Titus Quinctius Flamininus, consul in 198, defeated Philip V in 197 and thereafter proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks (Flamininus 10).
95. as I have described … in his Life: At Flamininus 15.
96. Cato was responsible … to the side of Rome: Perhaps derived from misleading self-advertisement on Cato’s part. These cities were members of the Achaean League, which had been persuaded by Flamininus to side with the Romans (Livy 35.48–50).
97. he clung to Roman forms: Valerius Maximus 2.2.2 indicates that it became customary for Romans to address Greek audiences in Latin.
98. Postumius Albinus … ignorance of the language: Aulus Postumius Albinus was praetor in 155. He composed a (now lost) history of Rome in Greek, in the preface for which he apparently apologized for any infelicities. Cicero (Brutus 81) praises his literary gifts and high culture.
99. decree of the Amphictyony: The Amphictyonic League was an association of Greek states that supervised the sanctuary at Delphi, adduced by Cato for its authority in matters important to Greek (but not Roman) culture. Cato’s remark is also preserved at Moralia 199e, Polybius 39.1 and Gellius 11.8.
100. from the heart: Implying intelligence rather than sentimentality (cf. note 64).
101. Antiochus had blocked … attack him in Greece: Plutarch here adapts Cato’s own version of his involvement in this campaign, which is quite different from Livy’s (36.15–19), itself derived from Polybius’ now lost account. In reality, Antiochus was aware that his position could be compromised and had guarded against it. Cato was dispatched by Glabrio to attack the Aetolians who were protecting the pass for Antiochus. A modern reconstruction of this battle is provided by W. K. Pritchett, Studies in Ancient Greek Topography, vol. 1 (1965), pp. 71–82. See also Briscoe, Commentary on Livy, Books 34–37, pp. 241–50.
102. Leonidas’ defences: King Leonidas of Sparta was outfl
anked and his force cut down by the Persians at the battle of Thermopylae of 480 (Herodotus 7.206–28). Once again, according to Plutarch, Cato is inspired by Greek precedent.
103. Lucius Mallius: (or Manlius) Unidentified.
104. heights of Mount Callidromus: The ridge between the River Asopus and Thermopylae.
105. Firmum: Modern Fermo. These troops were Italian allies.
106. never stinted his own praise: Livy describes Cato as ‘in no way whatsoever inclined to stint in self-praise’ (Livy 34.15.9: haud sane detrectator laudum suarum).
107. he was dispatched to Rome: Glabrio first sent Lucius Cornelius Scipio, consul in 190 and brother of Scipio Africanus, to the senate, then, a few days later, he sent Cato, who arrived first (Livy 36.21.4–8).
108. Brundisium: Modern Brindisi in southern Italy.
109. Petillius’ prosecution of Scipio: In 187, two tribunes, each named Quintus Petillius, began to attack Scipio Africanus for irregularities associated with his brother’s campaign against Antiochus the Great. Livy (38.54.2; cf. Gellius 4.18.7–12) believed that Cato was behind them. Eventually, both brothers Scipio were brought to trial, though the dates remain uncertain. Indeed, the so-called Trials of the Scipios, already a matter of confusion in the ancient sources, remain problematic. In the end, however, Scipio Africanus retired from Rome to his estate in Liternum, where he died in 183. A recent review of the evidence is provided by Briscoe, Commentary on Livy, Books 38–40, pp. 170–208.
110. intervention of the tribunes: The Scipios were assisted by the tribune Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, later to be consul in 177 and 163. He was the father of the Gracchi (see Plutarch’s Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus). His tribunate was probably in 187.
111. nearly fifty impeachments: Forty-four according to Pliny (Natural History 7.100).
112. ‘It is hard for a man … before another’: Also cited at Moralia 784d.
113. age of ninety: Cato, who died in 149, lived to be eighty-five, not ninety, though Livy (39.40) makes the same mistake and is no doubt Plutarch’s source here.
114. impeached Servius Galba: In 149 a tribune proposed legislation to try Servius Sulpicius Galba for alleged enormities committed during his praetorship in 151. Cato spoke in support of the proposal, the last speech of his career. In the end, however, the proposal failed and Galba went on to become consul in 144. Plutarch’s error here stems from Livy’s mistaken account (39.40.12). See Astin, Cato the Censor, pp. 111–12.
115. Nestor … his life spanned three generations: The wise Nestor is so described at Iliad 1.250–52 and Odyssey 3.345. Cicero made the comparison at On Old Age 31.
116. the younger Scipio: Plutarch refers to Scipio Aemilianus, who was the son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, the subject of the last Life in this volume.
117. candidate for the censorship: Cato was consul in 195 and elected censor in 184 (censors entered office immediately upon election). He had previously been an unsuccessful candidate in the elections in 189.
118. crowning honour … of a political career: See Lintott, Constitution, pp. 115–20.
119. chose two officials … a plebeian: Since 339, one of the censors had to be plebeian (in 131, for the first time, both censors were plebeian). On the distinction between patrician and plebeian, see Introduction to Coriolanus.
120. degrade a Roman knight: A member of the equestrian order could be deprived of his horse if he was disabled (in which case it was done without disgrace) or if he was deemed physically or morally unfit for the order (in which case it was a disgrace for the knight so degraded).
121. censors … expel a senator … disorderly life: The first act of the censors was to establish the senate’s membership. Senators could be expelled if their wealth fell below a minimum qualification or if their character was deemed unfit for membership.
122. when Cato became a candidate: This election was fiercely contested: see Livy 39.40–39.41.4 (which was very likely Plutarch’s source here).
123. hydra-like: Alluding to the Hydra of Lerna, a mythical many-headed creature that sprouted new heads whenever one was cut off. It was finally slain by Heracles.
124. As soon as he was elected: For the details of Cato’s censorship, see Livy 39.42.5–39.44.9 with Briscoe, Commentary on Livy, Books 38–40, pp. 357–67.
125. leading man in the senate: That is, princeps senatus. Valerius succeeded Scipio Africanus in this position.
126. Lucius Quinctius: Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, consul in 192. His expulsion from the senate is also described by Plutarch at Flamininus 18–19.
127. Cicero … gives the same details: Cicero, On Old Age 42.
128. Livy … in a speech of Cato’s own: Livy 39.42.8–12; at 39.43.1, Livy makes it clear he had read Cato’s speech.
129. judicial wager: See Flamininus, note 145.
130. expelled another senator … daughter: Also reported at Moralia 139e and Ammianus Marcellinus 28.4.9. Manilius is named only here and must be an error, since no praetor by that name is known from years prior to 184. It has been suggested that the man in question was actually a Manlius, a correction which yields several possible identifications.
131. Lucius Scipio: Lucius (note 107) was victor over Antiochus the Great at the battle of Magnesia in 190 and celebrated a triumph in 189.
132. the great Africanus: Scipio Africanus died in 183 before the end of Cato’s censorship.
133. imposed a tax … extravagant habits: Plutarch here relies on Livy 39.44.1–3; see the discussion by Briscoe, Commentary on Livy, Books 38–40, pp. 363–4. Cato’s action was irregular and punitive, hence the hostility it provoked.
134. Ariston: Probably Ariston of Chios, a third-century BC Stoic philosopher whose writings concentrated on ethics.
135. Scopas: Scopas of Crannon in Thessaly was a sixth-century BC tyrant famous for his wealth.
136. Titus: Titus Flamininus. Plutarch also cites Flamininus’ opposition to Cato at Flamininus 19, though Livy (39.44.8–9) says nothing about Flamininus in his account of the opposition to Cato during his censorship.
137. fine him 2 talents: There is no evidence, apart from this passage, that Cato was in fact fined by the tribunes; see Astin, Cato the Censor, p. 86.
138. Basilica Porcia: This building stood to the west of the senate-house. Its name derives from the name of Cato’s family (Porcius). It was destroyed by fire in 52 BC.
139. the temple of Health: This is the temple of Salus on the Quirinal Hill. The statue, which is otherwise unknown, was probably erected after Cato’s lifetime. On honorific statues in the early and middle republic, see P. Stewart, Statues in Roman Society: Representation and Response (2003), pp. 28–35.
140. effigies … carried in their hearts: The sentiment and language are Platonic (Plato, Philebus 39b).
141. ‘I had far rather … why there is one’: Also cited at Moralia 198e, 820b and Ammianus Marcellinus 14.6.8.
142. his wife: Her name was Licinia (inferred from the name of her son, see below). Plutarch’s is our only account of her.
143. nothing … to admire in Socrates … half-witted: Cato’s criticism of Socrates is adduced in ch. 23. Socrates’ wife, Xanthippe, was proverbially shrewish (e.g. Diogenes Laertius 2.36–7).
144. his son: Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus (c. 192–152). He lived to become praetor-elect and a learned authority on Roman law (his writings remained influential even in the imperial period).
145. suckled the child herself: Although the employment of wet-nurses was common, it was routinely suggested that it was a good practice for women to nurse their own children. (Plutarch’s wife breast-fed her children: Moralia 609e.)
146. the river: Presumably the Tiber.
147. his historical books: These are not the same as Cato’s Origins, which was composed during his old age (Nepos, Cato 3.3).
148. the general custom … ashamed to show themselves naked: Cf. Moralia 274a and Cicero, On Duties 1.129.
149. Romans adopted from the Greeks … women: Pl
utarch here contrasts Greek with Roman habits, to the credit of the Greeks. The Romans built baths throughout their empire, and they became popular in Greece. Mixed bathing, however, which first appeared during the empire, remained rare and was deemed decadent; see G. G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (1999), pp. 26–9. Roman baths were in any case deemed by some to be pleasant but less than wholly salubrious, an attitude made clear in the funerary epitaph of one Tiberius Claudius Secundus (ILS 8157): ‘Baths, wine and sex wreck our bodies, but baths, wine and sex make life worth living.’
150. his son … excellent soldier … Perseus: This exploit is also narrated at Aemilius Paullus 21.
151. a letter has come down to us: Cato addressed several works, including more than one public letter, to his son; see Astin, Cato the Censor, pp. 182–4.
152. when he had become more prosperous: Cato’s urgent elegance here contrasts with his representation in chs. 3–4, where one gets the impression that Cato’s austerity was a permanent condition. In these chapters, however, Plutarch is reporting the impression Cato makes on others and Cato’s own claims about his lifestyle.
153. contrived to provoke quarrels … among his slaves: Cato says just the opposite at On Agriculture 5.1, but his views on the matter may have been inconsistent.
154. agriculture … a source of income: This is not meant to be flattering. Agriculture was deemed the most honourable source of wealth; although in practice Roman senators were not above engaging in business practices like the ones mentioned in this chapter, Cato’s brand of capitalism was in principle regarded as unsuitable for an aristocrat (see e.g. Cicero, On Duties 1.150–51). In the preface to his On Agriculture, Cato writes:
Commerce can be very profitable, were it not so hazardous, and the same is true of money-lending, were it honourable. Our ancestors held this view … when they offered praise to a good man, they called him ‘a good farmer’ … farmers make the bravest and strongest soldiers … and their livelihood is at once the most venerable and most assured of them all.
155. bought … fisheries: At ch. 8 Cato decries the Romans’ appetite for fish delicacies.