GENERAL DOUGLAS MACARTHUR
Arguably one of the most colorful and popular military commanders in American history, he is never far from severe controversy. Though he will always have his admirers, some fanatically so, his critics are equally passionate in their disregard for the man’s skills as a strategist. Never to be regarded as open-minded, MacArthur’s utter disregard for the viewpoints of his superiors becomes his undoing. His distaste for following counsel or eventually orders from the Joint Chiefs of Staff causes enormous friction between his command in Tokyo and Washington, but MacArthur possesses an almost magical ability to intimidate, so much so that his superiors feel powerless to interfere in his control of the United Nations forces in Korea. His brilliant gamble that results in enormous success at Inchon only cements his authority, and inspires him to believe utterly in his own genius.
He is betrayed by many of those who serve him, including most prominently his intelligence officers, which fail completely to understand who or what kind of enemy they are facing in Korea. Fed blatantly erroneous reports by officers who seek only to gain his praise, MacArthur is not completely at fault for the astounding lack of awareness of Chinese intervention in the war, at a time when men on the front lines, including Oliver P. Smith, see a very different war than is being described to them from above.
It is MacArthur’s blithe dismissal of his president, Harry Truman, that causes his ultimate downfall. The two men generally despise each other, but Truman begins to understand that MacArthur’s dislike extends much further, into a general disregard for Truman’s authority as commander in chief. Though Truman tolerates MacArthur’s arrogance, he cannot ignore the potential danger that MacArthur’s belief in his own authority might portend for the country. MacArthur speaks openly of the use of nuclear weapons against either China or the Soviet Union, and though Truman reluctantly concedes that possibility, it is not a stance the president is willing to speak of publicly. MacArthur, on the contrary, is far more indiscreet in recommending an all-out war against China, which would include massive invasions of the Chinese mainland. That policy is not viewed favorably by either Truman or America’s allies, most notably the British, who begin to see MacArthur as a dangerously uncontrollable force.
The final straw comes for Truman when it is learned in Washington that MacArthur has privately expressed to officials from both Spain and Portugal that he was willing to order the invasion of China without full authorization from Washington. Though MacArthur disputes that account, it is a possibility that Truman cannot chance. Though he understands MacArthur’s enormous public popularity, Truman makes the decision that relieving him is a political gamble Truman must take. Despite the sudden reluctance by the Joint Chiefs, who seem anxious to defuse the controversy by minimizing MacArthur’s perceived crimes as nothing more than errors in judgment, Truman feels he has no alternative. On April 11, 1951, Truman relieves MacArthur of his command and replaces him with General Matthew Ridgway. A political firestorm erupts across the United States, newspapers and congressmen who support MacArthur calling for Truman’s ouster. Truman’s popularity rating drops to barely more than 20 percent, the lowest for any sitting president in United States history. For a long week, there is considerable anxiety in the Truman White House that MacArthur might ignore the order, and there is talk in Washington that MacArthur might in fact rally his enormous support and march on Washington, inserting himself in command of the government. But such talk seems overblown when MacArthur leaves Tokyo and returns home on April 18. He is then invited to address a joint session of Congress, during which he offers the now-famous quote, “Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.” It is a moment of drama rarely equaled in American history. Support rallies around the general for a run for the presidency, and MacArthur joins the campaign in 1952. But his lack of campaigning skills and his political support cannot match that shown for another heroic general, Dwight D. Eisenhower, who wins a landslide victory.
In 1952, MacArthur and his wife, Jean, move into the Waldorf-Astoria hotel in New York City, and later that year he is elected chairman of the board of the Remington Rand Corporation. Still respected for his vast military experience, he is sought out for counsel by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson. He vigorously advises the latter two men against involvement in Vietnam.
He dies in April 1964, of biliary cirrhosis, a liver disease, and at his own request is buried in Norfolk, Virginia. He is eighty-four. Jean dies in 2000.
The accolades and historical celebration of MacArthur’s life and career are lengthy, including more than one hundred military decorations from the United States and other countries around the world. Much of his reputation is earned, and there is ongoing debate that much of it is achieved on the backs of others. Like others before him, from William T. Sherman to George Patton, the controversy at least inspires discussion and examination. It is this author’s suggestion that characters like Douglas MacArthur are a crucial component of American history. In what can often become a dreary study of names, dates, places, facts, and figures, it is essential that there be personalities worth remembering, for good or otherwise. Douglas MacArthur is certainly that.
“I didn’t fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that’s not against the law for generals.”
—HARRY S. TRUMAN
“That little bastard [Truman] honestly believes he’s a patriot.”
—DOUGLAS MACARTHUR
“He got his first star in 1918 and that means he’s had almost thirty years as a general. Thirty years of people playing to him and kissing his ass, and doing what he wants. That’s not good for anyone.”
—GENERAL JOSEPH STILLWELL, 1950
“If MacArthur had had his way, the cost to the moral credibility of the United States around the world would almost certainly have been historically disastrous.”
—HISTORIAN MAX HASTINGS
GENERAL EDWARD “NED” ALMOND
Almond never accepts blame or even responsibility for the failures of his command in the fall and winter of 1950. It is a view not shared fully by his supreme commander, Douglas MacArthur. After the Chosin campaign concludes, Almond’s authority is severely curtailed, and true to Oliver Smith’s wishes, the Marines never again serve under Almond’s authority.
Almond serves adequately as Tenth Corps commander throughout the campaigns of 1951, and is generally praised by General Matthew Ridgway as an aggressive field general. But he never receives public praise and attention, nor the affection of his troops that always embraces Oliver Smith.
Throughout his life, he maintains steadfastly that his orders to advance blindly toward the Yalu River came from MacArthur, that he only obeyed what he was instructed to do. But he alters his own history in his description of the campaign as little more than a reconnaissance in force, and in 1976 he writes, “we had been caught in a mess by an unknown enemy strength which battle action could only determine.” Once that strength was determined, it fell upon MacArthur, and not Almond, to order the withdrawal southward, which Almond acknowledges, though he continues to ignore and deflect criticism for his command decisions.
He leaves Korea in late 1951, is promoted to lieutenant general, and becomes commander of the Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Almond retires from the army in 1953 and goes into the insurance business. He dies in 1979, at age eighty-six, and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
CAPTAIN WILLIAM BARBER
Fox Company’s commander recovers from his wounds in Japan, returns to the States in spring 1951. He requests and is assigned to the Marine Corps recruitment center in San Diego, serves in that post until his promotion to major in July 1952. His service carries him to Fort Benning, Georgia; Camp Lejeune, North Carolina; and Quantico, Virginia; as well as service as a naval attaché to the United States embassy in Bangkok, Thailand. He is promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1960 and is assigned to Okinawa as commanding officer of the Marine’s Third Reconnaissance Battalion. He returns aga
in to the States, is promoted to full colonel, and serves in a variety of prestigious positions at the Marine Corps Headquarters. He eventually is named commanding officer of the Second Marine Regiment. His active-duty career concludes in 1970, after a tour in Vietnam as psychological officer for the Third Marine Amphibious Force.
After retiring, Barber becomes an analyst for the Northrop Corporation and settles in California. He dies in 2002, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
William Barber’s career is punctuated by his astounding command of the action of Fox Hill. Outnumbered five to one, his company fends off repeated attacks by Chinese troops, with best estimates concluding that more than one thousand of the enemy are killed in the process. Of his 240 men, only a few dozen leave Fox Hill without wounds. Despite his severe wounds, Barber continues to command the action, until the pain and worsening infection render him completely immobile. For his heroics, William Barber is awarded the Medal of Honor by President Truman in August 1952.
COLONEL HOMER LITZENBERG
He is awarded the Navy Cross for his command during the Chosin campaign. In mid-1951, Litzenberg is assigned to Marine Corps Headquarters in Washington, D.C. He serves in a number of administrative posts, including command of the Marine Corps Development Center at Quantico. He briefly commands the Third Marine Division, and in 1954 is named inspector general of the Marine Corps. He commands at both Camp Lejeune and Parris Island until his retirement in 1959.
He dies in 1963 at age sixty, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
COLONEL LEWIS “CHESTY” PULLER
“All right. They’re on our left. They’re on our right. They’re in front of us, they’re behind us. They can’t get away this time.”
—COLONEL LEWIS “CHESTY” PULLER
Arguably the most celebrated and admired Marine in the Corps’ history, Puller is awarded five Navy Crosses and one army Distinguished Service Cross, the only man to receive so many awards at that level. He is promoted to brigadier general in January 1951, major general in 1953. He returns to the United States in mid-1951, commands the Third Marine Division, then is named to command of Troop Training Unit, Pacific, in California. In July 1954 he is named commander of the Marine Second Division, at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
He suffers a stroke, and retires from the Corps in 1955. He survives until 1971, and dies at age seventy-three. He is buried in Christ Church Cemetery, Saluda, Virginia.
“I’d like to do it all over again. The whole thing. And more than that, more than anything, I’d like to see once again the face of every Marine I’ve ever served with.”
—COLONEL LEWIS “CHESTY” PULLER
COLONEL ALPHA BOWSER
One of O. P. Smith’s most trusted staff officers, Bowser earns considerable respect as a primary staff officer for commanders throughout much of his career. He returns home to the United States in May 1951, serves in his position as G-3 (Assistant Chief of Staff, Operations and Plans) at the Marine base at Camp Pendleton, California. After serving briefly as chief of staff of the Marine Third Division, Bowser is named to the staff of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers, Europe, in Paris. In July 1955 he is assigned to San Diego, serves on the command staff of the Pacific Fleet Amphibious Force. In 1956 he is promoted to brigadier general and named to command the Marine Recruit Training Command in San Diego. Promoted to major general in 1960, he serves as commanding officer of the Marine Base at Twenty-nine Palms, California, and later serves as commanding officer of the Marine base at Camp Lejeune. Promoted to lieutenant general in 1965, Bowser is named to command of Fleet Marine Force in Norfolk, Virginia, until his retirement in June 1967.
He settles in Kailua, Hawaii, and dies in 2003, at age ninety-two.
GENERAL WALTON WALKER
The beleaguered commander of the United States Eighth Army is cruelly regarded by history, especially as that history is written by Douglas MacArthur, who never respects Walker’s abilities leading troops. After his army’s breakout from the Pusan Perimeter, Walker is blamed for allowing a great many North Korean troops to escape northward, despite MacArthur’s planned envelopment formed by the Inchon invasion. Overwhelmed by the surprise assault by Lin Biao’s Chinese forces, Walker withdraws the Eighth Army back below the 38th parallel, conceding to the Chinese the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. It is a militarily sound move, allowing the Eighth Army to both survive and regroup. MacArthur does not agree. Though many of his troops speak highly of Walker’s command, he is never allowed to redeem his failures in the summer and fall of 1950. On December 23, near Uijongbu, South Korea, he is killed in a jeep accident. He is sixty-one. Walker is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
He is succeeded in command of the Eighth Army by General Matthew Ridgway.
GENERAL FRANK LOWE
President Truman’s “eyes” in Korea continues his various informal inspection tours, though he develops a clear friendship and respect for Smith’s Marines beyond any other group. In late December 1950, Lowe writes Truman that the Marines should never again be placed under army command, which, logically, endears him to Oliver Smith. Lowe also issues a blistering report on the poor quality of the South Korean troops, laying blame at the feet of Syngman Rhee, whom he faults for rampant corruption. He returns to Washington in April 1951, having performed exactly as Truman had hoped, especially with added insight into the mind and performance of Douglas MacArthur, which contributes enormously to the eventual climactic confrontation between the president and his commanding general.
In his final report from Korea, Lowe says, “The First Marine Division under the command of O. P. Smith is the most efficient and courageous combat unit I have ever seen or heard of.”
When Lowe departs, he leaves behind a gift to Colonel Alpha Bowser: a heavily armored jeep, armed with a .50-caliber machine gun, and most important to Bowser, soft seats. The two men remain friends for years after.
Later in 1951, Truman demonstrates his appreciation for Lowe’s service by awarding him the Distinguished Service Cross.
COLONEL DOUGLAS DRYSDALE
He recovers from his wounds, continues to lead his Royal Marines throughout the United Nations campaigns against the Chinese throughout 1951. He continues in various commands until his retirement in 1962. Drysdale and his men are awarded the Presidential Unit Citation by Harry Truman, and in 1954, Drysdale is named an “Honorary U.S. Marine” by Marine Commandant Lemuel Shepherd. His own government recognizes his heroism, awarding him the title of “Member of the British Empire” as well as the “Distinguished Service Order.”
He dies in 1990, in Norfolk, England, at age seventy-four.
LIEUTENANT COLONEL DONALD FAITH
For his extraordinary leadership throughout the desperate escape attempt from overwhelming Chinese forces east of the Chosin Reservoir, Colonel Faith is awarded a posthumous Medal of Honor. Though recriminations are many after the campaign, no amount of blame is directed at Faith for the devastating losses under his command.
“In terms of the collective memory of the American people, the Korean War is not just forgotten. It was not remembered in the first place….”
—HISTORIAN ALLAN MILLETT
To my wife, Stephanie, who opened the door to this book after a meeting with an old family friend, “Peep” Sanders, who carries the memories found here
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I AM OFTEN asked about research sources. The following is a partial, and invaluable, list of published firsthand memoirs:
The Coldest War, by James Brady
The Three Day Promise, by Donald K. Chung, MD
We Were Innocents: An Infantryman in Korea, by William D. Dannenmaier
Once Upon a Lifetime, by C. I. Greenwood
Brave Men, by David H. Hackworth
One Bugle, No Drums, by William B. Hopkins
Reminiscences, by Douglas MacArthur
Colder Than Hell, by Joseph R. Owen
The Korean War, by Matthew B. Ridgway
Years
of Trial and Hope, by Harry S. Truman
I am deeply grateful to the following historians, whose published accounts of the Korean War all contributed to the necessary research:
Henry Berry
Clay Blair
Burke Davis
Bob Drury and Tom Clavin
T. R. Fehrenbach
David Halberstam
Eric Hamel
John W. Harper
Max Hastings
Robert Leckie
William Manchester
S. L. A. Marshall
Allan R. Millett
Martin Russ
Jim Wilson
Most especially, I am deeply indebted to the following, who offered unpublished firsthand accounts, or other significant avenues of research that proved essential in the writing of this book:
John A. Blazer, Savannah, GA
Walter E. Cohan, Vero Beach, FL
James R. Conway, Atlanta, GA
Fred Denson, Athens, GA
William T. Dunn, Reedsville, VA
O. W. Ervin, Littleton, CO
Robert Ezell, Los Alamitos, CA
Lyn Gillet, Poulsbo, WA
William Gerichten, Kernersville, NC
John Edward Gray, Mount Ulla, NC
Jim Griffith, Flemington, NJ
Bob Harbula, West Mifflin, PA
Larry Hochfeld, Tamarac, FL
Jack Ingram, Columbia, MD
Seamus Kilty, San Anselmo, CA
Tom Lewis, Albuquerque, NM
Leroy Martin, Rivervale, NJ