So a poor butterfly will flutter
And beat an iridescent wing,
Caught by a schoolboy, frolicking;
So a small winter hare will shudder
On seeing in the distant brush
A hunter crouched behind a bush.
(Stanza 40)
As an example of what literary criticism could get up to at the time, Pushkin was ridiculed by his chief enemy, the government spy Faddei Bulgarin, for introducing a beetle in Chapter VII:
Evening arrived. The sky has darkened.
The beetle whirrs. The waters flow.
(Stanza 15)
Was the beetle a new character, he asked. This apparently inane hostility to the ordinary in Onegin – and other works – was based on Pushkin’s mixing of the ‘low’ with the ‘high’. It was a social as well as literary attack. Something of the sort was experienced by early Wordsworth for similar reasons, but the criticism of him was mild by comparison.
NOTES
1. Carbonari: Literally, ‘charcoal burners’, a group of secret societies in France, Italy and Spain that aimed to overturn the forces of Restoration after the defeat of Napoleon.
2. I am writing now… into my head: A. S. Pushkin, Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 9, Letters 1815–1830 (Moscow: GIKhL (Gosudarstvenoye Izdatel’stvo Khudozhestvennoi Literatury), 1963), p. 77.
3. a weak imitator… Lord Byron: (Written in French: ‘un faible imitateur d’un original tres peu recommandable’), letter from Vorontsov to Count Nesselrode, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Eugene Onegin: A Novel in Verse by Aleksandr Pushkin, translated from the Russian, with a Commentary by Vladimir Nabokov (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964), vol. 3, p. 194.
4. No one respects Don Juan… introduction: Letter of 24 March 1825, Pushkin, Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 9, p.144.
5. the only poetic figure in Russian history: Letter to his brother, L. S. Pushkin, first half of November 1824, Pushkin, Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 9, p.119.
6. It was as if in those generations… write in prose: Edmund Wilson, The Triple Thinkers (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 57.
7. precision and brevity… vanished youth: A. S. Pushkin o Literature (Moscow: GIKhL, 1962), p. 23.
8. Between these two types… engulfs everything: Russian Views of Pushkin, ed. and trans. D. J. Richards and C. R. S. Cockrell (Oxford: William A. Meeuws, 1976), p. 23.
9. as Nabokov has shown: See his Commentary, Eugene Onegin: A Novel in Verse, vol. 2, pp. 387–9.
10. to depict that indifference… nineteenth century: A. S. Pushkin, Stikhotvoreniya, vol. 1 (Leningrad: Sovetsky Pisatel’, 1955), p. 677.
11. Ah freedom… he embraced: Ibid., p. 157.
12. You want freedom for yourself alone: Ibid., p. 257.
13. Many, like myself… distant parts: Ibid., p. 213 .
14. encyclopedia of Russian life: V. G. Belinsky, Polnoye sobraniye sochinenii (Moscow: Academy of Sciences, USSR, 1953–7), vol. 7, p. 503.
15. Concerning the eighth chapter… impoverished: N. L. Brodsky, Evgeny Onegin Roman A. S. Pushkina (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoye Izdatel’ stvo Ministerstva Prosveshcheniya RSFSR, 1957), p. 337.
16. Onegin will either perish… Decembrist movement: Yu. M. Lotman, Roman A. S. Pushkina Evgeny Onegin Kommentarii (Leningrad: ‘Prosveshcheniye, 1983), p. 316.
Further Reading
The following selection is confined to books in English and excludes many excellent articles on Eugene Onegin in scholarly journals. (Some of these are indicated in The Companion to Pushkin, see below.) An extensive bibliography of critical literature, in English, Russian and other European languages, is to be found in the study below by Sally Dalton-Brown. This also lists another eleven English translations of Pushkin’s novel.
Biographies
Binyon, T. J., Pushkin (London: HarperCollins, 2002)
Feinstein, E., Pushkin (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998)
Vickery, Walter N., Pushkin, Death of a Poet (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1968)
Vitale, Serena, Pushkin’s Button (London: Fourth Estate, 1999)
Critical Works on Eugene Onegin
Briggs, A. D. P., Eugene Onegin, Landmarks of World Literature Series (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)
Clayton, J. D., Ice and Flame: Aleksandr Pushkin’s ‘Eugene Onegin’ (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985)
Dalton-Brown, S., Pushkin’s ‘Evgenii Onegin’ (London: Bristol Classical Press, 1997)
Hoisington, S. S. (ed.), Russian Views of Pushkin’s ‘Eugene Onegin’, trans. S. S. Hoisington and W. Arndt (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988)
Studies of Pushkin with discussion of Eugene Onegin
Bayley, John, Pushkin: A Comparative Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971)
Bethea, D. (ed.), Pushkin Today (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).
Greenleaf, M., Pushkin and Romantic Fashion: Fragment, Elegy, Orient, Irony (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994)
Hoisington, S. S. (ed.), A Plot of Her Own: The Female Protagonist in Russian Literature (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1995). Includes chapter by Hoisington on ‘Tatiana’
Kahn, Andrew (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Pushkin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Includes chapter on Onegin by Marcus Levitt
Sandler, S., Distant Pleasures: Alexander Pushkin and the Writing of Exile (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989)
Tertz, Abram (A. Sinyavsky), Strolls with Pushkin (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993)
Vickery, Walter, Alexander Pushkin, revised edn (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1992)
Studies of Russian literature with discussion of Eugene Onegin
Andrew, Joe, Writers and Society during the Rise of Russian Realism (London: Macmillan, 1980)
Fennell, J., Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature: Studies of Ten Russian Writers (London: Faber and Faber, 1973)
Freeborn, R., The Rise of the Russian Novel: Studies in the Russian Novel from ‘Eugene Onegin’ to ‘War and Peace’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973)
Todd, W. Mills, Fiction and Society in the Age of Pushkin: Ideology, Institutions, and Narrative (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1986)
Wilson, Edmund, The Triple Thinkers (New York: Oregon Books, 1977). Twelve essays on literary subjects including ‘In Honour of Pushkin’
Woodward, James B., ‘The Principle of Contradictions in Evgeniy Onegin’ in Form and Meaning: Essays on Russian Literature (Columbus, OH: Slavica, c. 1993)
Other Writings on Pushkin
Bethea, David, Realizing Metaphors: Alexander Pushkin and the Life of the Poet (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998)
Clarke, Roger, Eugene Onegin and Four Tales from Russia’s Southern Frontier: A Prisoner in the Caucasus, The Fountain of Bachchisaray, Gipsies, Poltava (Herts: Wordsworth Classics, 2005). Translated into English prose with an Introduction and Commentary
Fennell, J., Selected Verse with Introduction and Prose Translations (Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1991)
Lukács, G., Russian Realism in World Literature (London: Merlin Press, 1970). Includes ‘Pushkin’s Place in World Literature’
Richards, D. J. and Cockerell, C. R. S., Russian Views of Pushkin (Oxford: Willem A. Meeuws, 1976)
Wolff, Tatiana, Pushkin on Literature (London: Methuen, 1971)
A Note on the Translation
The Onegin stanza looks like a sonnet, but lacks the sonnet’s traditional antithesis of octet and sestet. It is more a mixture of contrasts of the kind listed in the Dedication. Antithesis and repetition are its building blocks. Pushkin’s poetry has been called a ‘poetry of grammar’.1 In Onegin, more than elsewhere, the poet plays with a language that is just settling into a standard form. If Pushkin sought a ‘nakedness’ in prose,2 he uses the bare elements of grammar – adverbs, conjunctions, interrogatives – to construct the Onegin stanza.
Stanza 22 in Chapter I, for example, turns on five repetitions of ‘still’, cut off by a single ‘already’ in the final couplet:
Still cupids, devils, snakes keep leaping
Across the stage with noisy roars;
And weary footmen still are sleeping
On furs at the theatre doors;
There’s coughing still and stamping, slapping,
Blowing of noses, hissing, clapping;
Still inside, outside, burning bright,
The lamps illuminate the night;
And still in harness shivering horses
Fidget, while coachmen round a fire,
Beating their palms together, tire,
Reviling masters with their curses;
Already, though, Onegin’s gone
To put some new apparel on.
Pushkin’s ‘stills’ initiate the lines, which I was unable to follow. Only Nabokov, in his literal translation, reproduces Pushkin’s syntax exactly, which is a useful exercise for showing how the poetry depends on the deployment of grammar, but makes no pretence to be poetic. Repetition and contrast of primary words form an armature for the Onegin stanza. But such words or particles are usually more open-throated than their English equivalents. The Russian conjunctions ‘i’ and ‘a’, for example, meaning ‘and’ and ‘but’, can be repeated melodically, whereas the repetition of their equivalents in translation will be rebarbative. The same holds for the interrogatives ‘when’, ‘what’, ‘which’, all ending in consonants, where their Russian equivalents terminate in vowels: ‘kogda’, ‘shto’, ‘kakoi/kotory’ and can take any number of repetitions. For this reason the structure of the Onegin stanza can easily fall apart in translation.
The iambic tetrameter is an octosyllabic line with a weak and strong beat repeated four times (as in ‘The boy stood on the burning deck’). This is the so-called ‘masculine line’, which has a strong stress on the final syllable. The ‘feminine line’ adds an unstressed syllable (‘The boy stood on the burning vessel’). The Onegin stanza is made up of eight masculine lines and six feminine. It is a succinct line, which can be used more flexibly in Russian because of the greater variety of long and short words. English is more monosyllabic. Any stanza of my translation will have used on the average a third more words than the original. This may be an argument for employing the pentameter (five stresses) instead. It is after all the classic verse of English poetry just as the tetrameter is of Russian. But to do so would miss the cadences of the original and the lightness of Pushkin’s line. One danger of the tetrameter in English is that it can easily degenerate into a jingle as it did in the vers de société of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
There is another technical problem – the ‘feminine’, or unstressed, ending (e.g. ‘rapture’), for which there are relatively few rhymes in English compared with what Russian’s inflected vocabulary offers, so that the translator is too often reduced to using the ‘shon’ words – ‘machination’, ‘domination’ – to which I, too, plead guilty. Instead I have allowed myself near-rhymes: ‘Lyudmila’/’fellow’, ‘service’/’impervious’, ‘Latin’/’smattering’. While feminine rhyming is more problematic, I have also used near or half-rhymes for many ‘masculine’ (stressed) endings, where I thought an exact rhyme would constrain the meaning: ‘live’/‘love’, ‘face’/’peace’, ‘Muse’/’joys’. These two practices have been customary in English poetry since at least the start of the last century. I have noticed an excess of padding and distortion in previous translations that keep resolutely to exact rhyming. But not every half-rhyme is euphonious, and in the end I’ve had to rely on my ear. In the metre too I have introduced the irregularity of a trochee (strong beat/weak beat) at the beginning of a line, again in common with poetic usage, certainly since Shakespeare. Although I am familiar with previous translations, at no point in my own did I consult them, but from Nabokov’s literal version I borrowed several phrases.
My translation succeeds the earlier Penguin version by Charles Johnston,3 which was the first to put Pushkin’s poem on the map in English-speaking countries, inspiring Vikram Seth’s The Golden Gate and other imitations. Yet its aura is old-fashioned like those autumnal productions of Chekhov that once flourished on the British stage. The first major translator of Onegin, Oliver Elton (1937),4 mourned the ‘nobleness’ that had vanished from English literature by 1880 and found most nineteenth-century Russian writers unhealthy and repellent. Pushkin was an oasis for him – light, gay and authentically religious, unlike Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy. But there is little lightness about his translation, which is full of eighteenth – or early nineteenth-century phraseology – ‘thou’, ‘thee’, ‘tis’, ‘twas’, ‘fain’, ‘nay’ and many inversions and contortions. It might perhaps be argued in favour of such a diction that, since Onegin is about the squirearchy and nobility at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a period flavour is appropriate. However, Pushkin’s language is modern by comparison with Elton’s and is felt to be modern in Russia today.5
Elton, a professor of English who taught himself Russian, had family roots in the landed gentry, and Johnston was a diplomat married into the Russian aristocracy. The latter’s verse novella Talk About the Last Poet (1981) recalls a vanishing idyll set in France during the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West. In his Preface he insists that he feels no nostalgia about the more immediate demise of the British Empire, and yet, with evident approval, quotes a ‘distinguished critic’ who describes him as its ‘last poet’. Does not a similar hankering take him to Onegin, likewise an idyll destroyed? Johnston is not as backward-looking as Elton but, like him, though certainly not to the same extent, he poeticizes Pushkin’s language, blurring its precision.
The critic John Bayley, who introduced Johnston’s translation, had already reinforced this eighteenth-century image of Pushkin in 1971 in his Pushkin: A Comparative Commentary,6where, in order to familiarize anglophone readers with the Russian poet, he had aligned him with Jane Austen and Laurence Sterne, pointing out perceptively that all three authors shared a pre-modern, pre-professional, pre-realist mode of writing. But whether their work relies purely on convention and artifice, as he argues, is another matter. Pushkin adored Sterne, whom he read in French, and Onegin’s devious manner of storytelling may remind us of him. But Bayley’s comparison is really more formalist than historical, since he finds a similar use of convention and artifice in a long range of writers from Chaucer to Joyce and owes much of his interpretation to the Russian Formalist Viktor Shklovsky, who, in 1923, described the novel as a Sternean game with the plot.7 Today, in Western academic circles, this tradition, now more complex and innovative, has become the prevailing wisdom. Avant garde critics in Russia have now gone further, crowning Pushkin as the first Russian postmodernist.
This development was anticipated in 1964 by Vladimir Nabokov who asserted that Pushkin’s characters were no more than stylized impersonators of figures in Western literature and that the only Russian element of importance in the novel was the language. His translation is a hybrid of ‘period’ and artifice. For every historically specific word in the original he finds or invents a corresponding archaism or neologism (‘mollitude’, ‘dulcitude’, ‘juventude’, ‘ancientry’, ‘buttsome’) which few, if any, readers will have encountered. In this aestheticizing of the past Nabokov anticipates the postmodern translation of the American Douglas Hofstadter.9 While Nabokov still holds the text sacrosanct, apart from his bizarre archaisms, Hofstadter turns it into a quarry of personal interpolations and alterations, retaining only stanza, rhyme and metre, all, he assures us, in a Pushkinian sense of fun.
I have attempted in my translation to write in a contemporary idiom that avoids the antiquarian or the modern/postmodern. As far as the period translation is concerned, I am at one here with the American James Falen, who remarked of his admirable 1995 version of Onegin that he aimed ‘to adapt the rhythms of the poem to the rhythms of English speech’ today and to avoid ‘the sorts of
inversions and verbal contortions’10 that in his view marred the earlier translations. Only in a few cases have I introduced dated words like ‘ere’, ‘o’er’, ‘midst’, and then for metrical reasons. The rhyming and metrical format of Onegin declares that it is a historical work. It is not a form that is common today. We rhyme much less today. There is no need to imitate poets of the past in order to give a historical sense to Onegin. I was once counselled in Russia to render Pushkin’s various styles into equivalents from English poetry, but that would have turned the translation into a Nabokovian artefact. It is very tempting to adopt the manner of Byron’s Don Juan, especially since it was Byron’s poem that set Pushkin going. But it would miss the lyrical depth and what an acquaintance once described to me as the ‘homeliness’ of Pushkin, who in any case, soon turned against the English poet. It would also miss Pushkin’s classical compactness. On the other hand, it is extremely difficult to render the multiplicity of styles in Onegin, which are embedded in history, and which require a commentary. Pushkin helps by parodying these styles and so bringing them into relief. The same is true of the constant epithets accompanying his characters. These are convenient stepping-stones for a translator. In present-day syntax they will stand out and evoke the flavour of the original without lapsing into the archaic. Best of all is to be able to reproduce Pushkin’s simplicity, tangibility and precision, then the problem falls away and he appears as our contemporary.
The idea for my translation originated in a series of seminars held in the Literature Department of the University of Essex in 1966, when Pushkin was much less known in Britain than he is now and considered untranslatable for some of the reasons given above. A group of us, questioning this and the notion of untranslatability as such, undertook a collective translation of Eugene Onegin. Our poet-professor, Donald Davie, was to provide the verse. The project failed and Davie died, but without his initiative I should never have embarked, many years later, on the present version, of which I’ll remark, adapting Pushkin’s lines: