Having read about the Antikythera mechanism (the box-like object which Tarquinius nearly sees in Rhodes), I felt obliged to mention it in The Road to Rome. Although it was found over a hundred years ago, its immense significance has only become apparent in the last decade, thanks in the main to an 8-ton X-ray machine which has taken images that give incredibly fine ‘slice’ pictures. Built in approximately 150–100 BC, possibly in the region of Syracuse, the device was able to do all the things mentioned. Remarkably, the technology to replicate its intricate gears was not rediscovered for more than 1,500 years. If the Greeks were building things like this, what else were they able to do? How incredible that the chance discovery of a sponge diver should reveal so much. We do not know where it was being transported to at the time of its loss at sea. One popular theory, which I have used, is that it had been taken from the famous Greek Stoic school on Rhodes by Caesarean troops, who were known to have plundered the region for treasures to display at his triumphs.
My account of Ruspina largely follows the historical record, including a storm scattering Caesar’s fleet, his cavalrymen feeding their horses dried seaweed, Scipio’s concealment of his mounted forces until the last minute, Caesar’s rebuke of the signifer and his remarkable retrieval of the situation. Labienus was attacked by a veteran legionary, not a senior centurion. Marcus Petreius, who appeared in The Silver Eagle, fought at Ruspina, and was probably injured. It is my construct that this occurred during the last action of the day, and at Romulus’ hands. Before Thapsus, several Caesarean cohorts were trained specifically to fight the Pompeian elephants. Remarkably, his veteran legions were so eager to close with the enemy at the outset of the encounter that they charged before being ordered to do so. One of my favourite discoveries during the research for The Road to Rome was that during this final battle in Africa, a legionary of the Fifth ‘Alaudae’ Legion had successfully attacked an elephant that had picked up a camp follower, forcing it to drop its victim. I felt I had to include this sequence in the novel, even though it changed what I thought might (or might not) have happened to Brennus.
Caesar did indeed celebrate four triumphs in the autumn of 46 BC, and the staggering scale of each parade can only be imagined. The dictator’s generosity to his soldiers and the Roman public in general is recorded. His honour guard composed of soldiers from all ten legions is my invention, so that I could have Romulus return to Rome. It was during these parades rather than at Ruspina that his men were recorded as singing of the ‘bald-headed lecher’. Evidence for the victorious general’s face being painted red is limited, as is the custom of smearing the statue of Jupiter with blood (or the red pigment cinnabar), but I felt it added to the sense of drama. The battle of Munda was just as remarkable as I’ve described, however, as were the staggering awards Caesar was granted upon his return to Rome.
Marcus Antonius was indeed the larger-than-life character depicted in The Road to Rome. A wild-living natural soldier, he was famous for his drinking, philandering and womanising. He is recorded as having vomited in front of the entire Senate, and liked to travel in a British war chariot. While his response to the unrest during Caesar’s absence in Egypt was heavy-handed, there is no evidence to my knowledge of his being involved with a fugitivarius or organising dirty work on Caesar’s behalf. Of course, Fabiola being the catalyst for the conspirators to meet is pure fiction, as is the use of the Lupanar as the location for their meetings. Marcus Junius Brutus was indeed one of the last to join the plot, although he quickly became one of the leaders. As I explained in the note at the end of The Silver Eagle, his compatriot Gaius Cassius Longinus is an amalgam of two historical characters, one of the same name, and his brother (or cousin) Quintus Cassius Longinus.
All kinds of signs were supposed to have occurred in the run-up to the Ides of March. Soothsayers predicted unfavourable omens and Calpurnia, Caesar’s wife, had a nightmare about him being murdered. Apparently, the dictator chose to stay at home that morning, but whether it was because of her warning, or because he really was unwell, we do not know. The size of his new army, and his planned campaign to Parthia, are documented. Romulus’ dawn visit is fictional, but Decimus Brutus did call in that morning and succeed in persuading Caesar to attend the Senate. Although his Spanish bodyguards really had been disbanded, there is no evidence to suggest that any veterans tried to protect the dictator on that last fateful day.
Two senators did try to help Caesar when his assassins struck, but the press was so great that they were unable to reach him. Obviously, Romulus and Fabiola’s encounter over his body is made up, but the presence of Decimus Brutus’ gladiators in the nearby arena is not. Who knows if this is coincidence or not? Rather than fleeing immediately, the conspirators placed the cap traditionally worn by a freed slave on a pole and carried it to the Capitoline Hill, showing the public how they had freed the Republic from slavery. The rioting I described actually happened a few days later, after Caesar’s funeral. During it, many of the conspirators’ houses were attacked, and a loyal supporter of the dictator was murdered when he was wrongly identified as one of Caesar’s enemies.
Thanks to the many holes in our knowledge, much has to be left open to interpretation when describing the ancient world. While I have changed details here and there, many of which are explained above, I have also tried to portray the time as accurately as possible. Hopefully this has been done in an entertaining and informative manner, without too many errors. For those that might be present, I apologise.
I must offer some appreciation to the multitude of authors without whose works I would be lost. First among these is A History of Rome by M. Cary and H. H. Scullard; closely following are The Complete Roman Army and Caesar, both by Adrian Goldsworthy; Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars by Duncan Head; and The Roman Triumph by Mary Beard, as well as numerous fantastic volumes from Osprey Publishing. Thanks once again to the members of www.romanarmy.com, whose rapid responses to my questions often help so much. It is quite simply one of the best Roman reference resources there is. I would also like to express real gratitude to my old friend Arthur O’Connor, for all his constructive criticism and help with this and my previous two books. Also a veterinary surgeon, he is blessed with an incisive and insightful mind when it comes to novel-writing, and he frequently helps me to see ‘the wood for the trees’. Many thanks too to another old friend and vet, Killian Ó Móráin, for similar services rendered.
Last, but definitely not least, I want to thank my top-class agent, Charlie Viney, for his untiring work on my behalf. To Rosie de Courcy, my wonderful editor, I owe so much: without her razor-sharp input I would be lost. Thanks too to Nicola Taplin, my managing editor, and to Richenda Todd, my excellent copy editor, two people whose efforts on my behalf I appreciate immensely. I am also greatly indebted to Claire Wheller, my physiotherapist, for keeping at bay the various RSIs I have acquired while writing. To my wife, Sarah, and children, Ferdia and Pippa, I owe the deepest debt, for they provide me with all the love I could need.
Glossary
acetum: sour wine, the universal beverage served to Roman soldiers. Also the word for vinegar, the most common disinfectant used by Roman doctors. Vinegar is excellent at killing bacteria, and its widespread use in western medicine continued until late in the nineteenth century.
Aesculapius: son of Apollo, the god of health and the protector of doctors.
amphora (pl. amphorae): a large, two-handled clay vessel with a narrow neck used to store wine, olive oil and other produce. It was also a unit of measurement, equivalent to 80 pounds of wine.
aquilifer (pl. aquiliferi): the standard-bearer for the aquila, or eagle, of a legion. To carry the symbol which meant everything to Roman soldiers was a position of immense importance. Casualty rates among aquiliferi were high, as they were often positioned near or in the front rank during a battle. The only images surviving today show the aquilifer bare-headed, leading some to suppose that this was always the case. In combat, however, this would have been incredi
bly dangerous and we can reasonably assume that the aquilifer did wear a helmet. We do not definitely know if he wore an animal skin, as the signifer did, so to have him do so is my interpretation. His armour was often scale, and his shield probably a small one, which could be carried easily without using the hands. During the late Republic, the aquila itself was silver and clutched a gold thunderbolt. The wooden staff it was mounted on had a spike at its base, allowing it to be shoved into the ground, and sometimes it had arms, which permitted it to be carried more easily. Even when damaged, the aquila was not destroyed, but lovingly repaired time and again. If lost in battle, the Romans would do virtually anything to get the standard back. The recovery of Crassus’ eagles by Augustus in 20 BC was thus regarded as a major achievement.
as (pl. asses): a small bronze coin, originally worth one-fifth of a sestertius. In 23 BC, its makeup was changed to copper.
atrium: the large chamber immediately beyond the entrance hall in a Roman house or domus. Frequently built on a grand scale, this was the social and devotional centre of the house. It had an opening in the roof and a pool, the impluvium, to catch the rainwater that entered.
aureus (pl. aurei): a small gold coin worth twenty-five denarii. Until the time of the early Empire, it was minted infrequently.
ballista (pl. ballistae): a two-armed Roman catapult that looked like a big crossbow on a stand. It operated via a different principle, however, utilising the force from the tightly coiled sinew rope holding the arms rather than the tension in the arms themselves. Ballistae varied in size, from those portable by soldiers to enormous engines that required wagons and mules to move them around. They fired either bolts or stones with great force and precision. Favourite types had nicknames like ‘onager’, the wild ass, named for its kick; and ‘scorpion’, called such because of its sting.
basilicae: huge covered markets in the Roman Forum; also where judicial, commercial and governmental activities took place. Public trials were conducted here, while lawyers, scribes and moneylenders worked side by side from little stalls. Many official announcements were made in the basilicae.
bestiarius (pl. bestiarii): men who hunted and captured animals for the arena in Rome. A highly dangerous occupation, it was also very lucrative. The more exotic the animals – for example elephants, hippopotami, giraffes and rhinoceroses – the higher the premium commanded. The mind boggles at the labour and hazards involved in bringing such animals many hundreds of miles from their natural habitat to Rome.
bucina (pl. bucinae): a military trumpet. The Romans used a number of types of instruments, among them the tuba, the cornu and the bucina. These were used for many purposes, from waking the troops each morning to sounding the charge, the halt or the retreat. We are uncertain how the different instruments were played – whether in unison or one after another, for example. To simplify matters, I have used just one of them: the bucina.
caldarium: an intensely hot room in Roman bath complexes. Used like a modern-day sauna, most also had a hot plunge pool. The caldarium was heated by hot air which flowed through hollow bricks in the walls and under the raised floor. The source of the piped heat was the hypocaustum, a furnace kept constantly stoked by slaves.
caligae: heavy leather sandals worn by the Roman soldier. Sturdily constructed in three layers – a sole, insole and upper – caligae resembled an open-toed boot. The straps could be tightened to make them fit more closely. Dozens of metal studs on the sole gave the sandals good grip; these could also be replaced when necessary. In colder climes, such as Britain, socks were often worn as well.
cella (pl. cellae): the windowless, rectangular central room in a temple dedicated to a god. It usually had a statue of the relevant deity, and often an altar for offerings as well.
cenacula (pl. cenaculae): see insula.
Cerberus: the monstrous three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades. It allowed the spirits of the dead to enter, but none to leave.
consul: one of two annually elected chief magistrates, appointed by the people and ratified by the Senate. Effective rulers of Rome for twelve months, they were in charge of civil and military matters and led the Republic’s armies into war. Each could countermand the other and both were supposed to heed the wishes of the Senate. No man was supposed to serve as consul more than once. But by the end of the second century BC, powerful nobles such as Marius, Cinna and Sulla were holding on to the position for years on end. This dangerously weakened Rome’s democracy, a situation made worse by the triumvirate of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. From then on, the end of the Republic was in sight.
contubernium (pl. contubernia): a group of eight legionaries who shared a tent or barracks room and who cooked and ate together.
denarius (pl. denarii): the staple coin of the Roman Republic. Made from silver, it was worth four sestertii, or ten asses (later sixteen). The less common gold aureus was worth twenty-five denarii.
domus: a wealthy Roman’s home. Typically it faced inwards, presenting a blank wall to the outside world. Built in a long, rectangular shape, the domus possessed two inner light sources, the atrium at the front and the colonnaded garden to the rear. These were separated by the large reception area of the tablinum. Around the atrium were bedrooms, offices, storerooms and shrines to a family’s ancestors, while the chambers around the garden were often banqueting halls and further reception areas.
editor (pl. editores): the sponsor of a munus, a gladiatorial contest. Once part of the obligatory rituals to honour the dead, such munera had by the late Republic become a way of winning favour with the Roman people. The lavishness of the spectacle reflected the depth of the editor’s desire to please.
Felicitas: the goddess of good luck and success.
Fortuna: the goddess of luck and good fortune. Like all deities, she was notoriously fickle.
fossae (sing. fossa): defensive ditches, which were dug out around all Roman camps, whether temporary or permanent. They varied in number, width and depth depending on the type of camp and the degree of danger to the legion.
fugitivarius (pl. fugitivarii): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways.
Gallicinium watch: the Romans divided night-time into eight watches, four before midnight, and four after it. The Gallicinium watch is the second of these latter four, so approximately 2 a.m. TO 4 a.m.
gladius (pl. gladii): little information remains about the ‘Spanish’ sword of the Republican army, the gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade. I have therefore used the ‘Pompeii’ variation of the gladius as it is the shape most people are familiar with. This was a short – 420–500 mm (16.5–20 in) – straight-edged sword with a V-shaped point. About 42–55 mm (1.6–2.2 in) wide, it was an extremely well-balanced weapon ideal for both cutting and thrusting. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the scutum while being unsheathed.
haruspex (pl. haruspices): a soothsayer. A man trained to divine in many ways, from the inspection of animal entrails to the shapes of clouds and the way birds fly. As the perceived source of blood, and therefore life itself, the liver was particularly valued for its divinatory possibilities. In addition, many natural phenomena – thunder, lightning, wind – could be used to interpret the present, past and future. The bronze liver mentioned in the book really exists; it was found in a field at Piacenza, Italy, in 1877.
hora prima: Roman time was divided into two periods, that of daylight (twelve hours) and of night time (eight watches). The first hour of the day, hora prima, started at sunrise. Great inaccuracies were present in the Romans’ methods of measuring time. The main instrument used was a sundial, which meant that the latitude of the location defined day length. Thus the time in Rome was quite different to Sicily, far to the south. In addition,
varying day length throughout the year meant that daylight hours in the winter were shorter than in the summer. We must therefore assume that time was more elastic in ancient times. The Romans also devised the clepsydra, or water clock. By using a transparent water vessel with a regular intake, it was possible to mark the level of water for each daylight hour, and then to use it at night or during fog.
Imperator: a Latin word which meant ‘commander’ in Republican times. Later it came to be one of the emperor’s titles, and of course gave rise to the English word.
insula (pl. insulae): high-rise (three-, four- or even five-storey) blocks of flats in which most Roman citizens lived. As early as 218 BC, Livy recorded the tale of an ox that escaped from the market and scaled the stairs of an insula before hurling itself to its death from the third floor. The ground level of each insula often comprised a taberna, or shop, which opened right on to the street via a large arched doorway. The shopkeeper and his family lived and slept in the room above. Built on top of this was floor after floor of cenaculae, the plebeians’ flats. Cramped, poorly lit, heated only by braziers, and often dangerously constructed, the cenaculae had no running water or sanitation. Access to the flats was made via staircases built on the outside of the building.
intervallum: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings from enemy missiles, it could when necessary allow the massing of troops before battle.