6 Johnsonian Miscellanies, ed. G. B. Hill, 2 vols (Oxford 1897), Vol. I, p. 118; Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 46.
7 Salway (IV–7), p. 113; Braund (IV–41), p. 144.
8 Graham Webster in the London Archaeologist, Vol. 4, no. 15 (1984) p. 411 suggests ‘Boudica and her household’ may have misunderstood what was an accounting process; alternatively Catus saw an opportunity for personal gain; Tacitus (III–I), p. 328.
9 Cit. Salway (IV–7), p. 146; Brownmiller, Susan, Against our will: Men, Women and Rape (1975), p. 14.
10 Breisach (I–21), p. 341.
11 I.e. Salway (IV–7), p. 114.
12 Cit. Balsdon (IV–22), p. 33.
13 Dio (III–23), VIII, p. 83.
14 Salway (IV–7), p. 115.
15 See Richmond, I. A., ‘The Four Coloniae of the Roman Empire’, Archaeological Journal, Vol. 103 (1947), p. 57.
16 Frere (IV–15), pp. 104–5.
17 Fishwick, Duncan, ‘Templum Divo Claudium Constitutum’, Britannia, Vol. 3 (1972), pp. 168f.; Webster (I–3), p. 89.
18 See Wheeler, R. E. M. and Laver, P. G., ‘Roman Colchester’, Journal of Roman Studies, IX (1919), pp. 139–69; Crummy, Philip, ‘Colchester: The Roman Fortress and the Development of the Colonia’, Britannia, Vol. 8 (1977), pp. 65–106.
19 Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 49.
20 Ross, Pagan (II–I), p. 53; also Piggott (IV–9), passim for the Druids.
21 Todd (II–8), p. 257; Salway (IV–7), p. 24.
22 Gibbon (I–9), I, p. 29.
23 Laing, Lloyd, Celtic Britain (1979), p. 81; Piggott (IV–9), p. 99; Powell (IV–8), p. 153; Ross, Everyday (IV–8), p. 151; Syme, Sir Ronald, Ten Studies in Tacitus (Oxford 1970), p. 25 and note 2.
24 Cit. Holmes, Richard, Footsteps (1984), p. 263.
25 Strongly argued by Webster (I–3), pp. 63f.; Richmond, I. A., Roman Britain (2nd edn 1963 pbk), p. 28, agrees, as does Frere (IV–15), p. 76; but see Todd (II–8), Appendix pp. 255–6 for contrary view and Dyson, Stephen L., ‘Native Revolts in the Roman Empire’, History, Vol. xx (1971), p. 260: the Druids’ role has been ‘exaggerated’.
26 Fox (IV–II), p. 145.
27 Holinshed’s Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland, 6 vols, Vol. I (1807), p. 496; Milton (IV–32), p. 65; Syme (IV–34), I, p. 763 and note 6; Overbeck, John C., ‘Tacitus and Dio on Boudicca’s Rebellion’, American Journal of Philology, Vol. XL (1969), p. 136 note 27.
28 See Layard, John, The Lady and the Hare (1944), passim; Ross, Pagan (II–I), pp. 349–50.
29 Note by Dr Anne Ross, Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 151; Briffault (II–9), II, p. 70 note 12; Ross, Everyday (IV–8), p. 159; cit. Fox (IV–II), p. 139 and plate 80 no. 19.
30 Tacitus, Histories (IV–30), p. 247; Powell (IV–8), p. 195.
31 Dyson (V–25), p. 265.
32 Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 57.
33 Crummy (V–18), p. 81.
34 Crummy, Philip, Colchester, Recent Excavations and Research (Colchester 1974).
35 Philip Crummy, Colchester Archaeological Trust, to the author, Colchester, 1985.
36 Dudley and Webster (I–3), pp. 106–7.
37 Webster (I–3), p. 117.
CHAPTER six: The Red Layer
1 Todd (II–8), p. 90.
2 Tacitus, Agricola (IV–33), p. 63.
3 Webster (I–3), pp. 90–1.
4 See Frere, S. S. and Joseph, J. K. St., ‘The Roman Fortress at Longthorpe’, Britannia, Vol. 5 (1974).
5 Ogilvie, R. M. and Richmond, Sir Ian (eds), Cornelii Taciti De Vita Agricolae (Oxford 1967), p. 198 note to ‘universi’.
6 Webster (I–3), p. 90.
7 Webster (I–3), p. 93; Firth, C. H., Cromwell’s Army, with a new Introduction by P. H. Hardacre (1967 pbk), p. 106.
8 See Merrifield, Ralph, London: City of the Romans (1983), pp. 41–6 and notes 1 and 2 p. 274 for a concise summary.
9 Hall, Jenny and Merrifield, Ralph, Roman London (HMSO 1986), p. 6.
10 Merrifield (VI–8), pp. 26–7 suggests a military origin; but see Marsden, Peter, Roman London (1980), pp. 22–4 for a theory of civil trading settlement.
11 Marsden (VI–10), p. 24 for acreage; Frere (IV–15), p. 296 for population, if Tacitus’ figures are accepted, since his language suggests ‘an official source’.
12 Merrifield (VI–8), p. 42.
13 Marsden (VI–10), p. 26.
14 Marsden (VI–10), p. 25.
15 Webster (I–3), p. 94.
16 Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 55.
17 See Lambert, Frank, ‘Some Recent Excavations in London’, Archaeologia, Vol. LXXI (1921), pp. 55–8; Dunning, G. C., ‘Two Fires of Roman London’, Antiquaries Journal, Vol. XXV (1945), pp. 48–50 and fig. 3.
18 Marsden (VI–10), p. 33; Report by the Police President of Hamburg, 1 December 1943, Appendix 30, German Documents, 1943–45, p. 311.
19 Marsden (VI–10), p. 31.
20 Merrifield (VI–8), p. 57.
21 But Marsh, Geoff and West, Barbara, ‘Skulduggery in Roman London?’, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, Transactions, XXXII (1981) reject ‘the events of AD 60’ in connection with the skulls, in favour of ‘Celtic religious practices connected with water’.
22 Fraser, Antonia, Cromwell, Our Chief of Men (1973), p. 338.
23 Tacitus, Agricola (IV–33), p. 66; Tacitus (III–I), p. 329; Dio (III–23), VIII, p. 95.
24 Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology (1986), pp. 75–6.
25 I.e. Salway (IV–7), pp. 65–7; Wells (IV–23), pp. 276–8.
26 Pete Rowsome, site supervisor for Museum of London, quoted in New Scientist, 29 August 1985.
27 Clive, Thomas, The Complete Works of Lord Macaulay, 12 vols (1898), Vol. VII, p. 362.
CHAPTER SEVEN: Eighty Thousand Dead
1 See Frere, Sheppard, Verulamium Excavations, Vol. I, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London no. XXVIII (Oxford 1972); Webster (I–3), p. 124.
2 Tacitus (III–I), pp. 328–9; Dio (III–23), VIII, p. 95; Webster (I–3), p. 124.
3 Todd (II–8), p. 91 for ten thousand; Webster, Graham, The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries AD (2nd edn reprinted with corrections 1981), p. 229 for 15,000–20,000.
4 See Fuentes, Nicholas, ‘Boudicca re-visited’, London Archaeologist, Vol. 4, no. 12 (1983); Webster, Graham, ‘The Site of Boudica’s Last Battle: A Comment’, and Nicholas Fuentes’ response to Graham Webster, London Archaeologist, Vol. 4, no. 15 (1984).
5 See Webster, ‘The Site’ (VII–4).
6 Spence, Lewis, Boadicea: Warrior Queen of the Britons (1937), p. 248.
7 See Fuentes (VII–4).
8 See Transactions of the Birmingham Archaeological Society (Oxford), Vol. 79 (1964), pp. 117–20 for Adrian Oswald on coins and an earthenwork from Mancetter; Vol. 84 (1971), pp. 18–44 for evidence of a first-century ditch; Vol. 85 (1973), pp. 211–13 for possible importance of the site in association with the great revolt of AD 60; Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. III; Webster (I–3), p. 97 and fig. 5, p. 98. Other sources: Frere (IV–15), p. 107, ‘reasonable guesses’ have placed the site close to Watling Street, north-west of Towcester or near Mancetter; Salway (IV–7), p. 120: ‘somewhere in the Midlands’, Todd (II–8), p. 91: ‘may not have been far to the north-west of Verulamium’.
9 Salway (IV–7), p. 77.
10 See Webster, Army (VII–3), pp. 122–32.
11 The Tragedie of Bonduca in Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, Gentlemen … (1647), Act v, scene iv.
12 Bolton, Edmund, cit. Piggott (IV–9), p. 136; Jones, Inigo, The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain, Vulgarly called Stone-Heng, on Salisbury Plain Restored (2nd edn 1725), pp. 34–5.
13 Scott, J. M., Boadicea (1975), pp. 31f.; Spence (VII–5), p. 260; The Times, 23 February 1988; Nicholas Fuentes, letter to The Times, 27 February 1988 thought Platform 8 – ‘who knows’ – not impossible.
> 14 Gibbon (I–9), I, p. 39.
15 Tacitus, Agricola (IV–33), p. 67; Tacitus (III–I), p. 331; Bulst (V–2), p. 506; Overbeck (V–27), pp. 141–2.
16 Bulst (V–2), p. 506; Clarke (IV–9), p. 114.
17 Clarke (IV–9), p. 114; Bulst (V–2), p. 506 and note 80; Tacitus, Agricola (IV–33), p. 81.
18 Todd (II–8), p. 91; Salway (IV–7), Appendix IV p. 751.
19 Cit. Nieng Cheng, Life in Shanghai (1986), p. 203.
CHAPTER EIGHT: O Zenobia!
1 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 247; Dio (III–23), VIII, p. 83.
2 See Février, J. G., Essai sur l’histoire politique et économique de Palmyre (Paris 1931); Tlass, Moustapha, Zénobie Keine de Palmyre: Oeuvre adaptée en français par Athanase Vantchev de Thracy (Damascus 1986), passim.
3 I.e. Oliver Cromwell in seventeenth-century England, Fraser (VI–22), p. 564; Février, J. G., La Religion des Palmyréniens (Paris 1931), p. 222.
4 Cameron, Alan, ‘The Date of Porphyry’s KATA KRISTIANON’, Classical Quarterly, XVII (1967), pp. 382–4.
5 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 135.
6 See Abbott, Nabia, ‘Pre-Islamic Arab Queens’, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, Vol. LVIII (1941), pp. 1–22.
7 Gibbon (I–9), I, p. 150.
8 Abbott, Nabia, ‘Women and the State on the Eve of Islam’, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, Vol. LVIII (1941), pp. 269–78; Abbott, Aishah (I–II), p. x.
9 Abbott, ‘Women’ (VIII–8), p. 262; Beard, Mary R., Women as Force in History: A Study in Traditions and Realities (New York 1946), p. 290; Clayton, Ellen C., Female Warriors: Memorials of Female Valour and Heroism, from the Mythological Ages to the Present Era, 2 vols (1879), Vol. I, p. 88.
10 Février (VIII–2), pp. 59–62; Fedden, Robin, Syria: An Historical Appreciation (revised edn 1956), p. 87.
11 Février, Religion (VIII–3), p. 235.
12 The History of Count Zosimus, Sometime Advocate and Chancellor of the Roman Empire (1814), pp. 21f.; Février (VIII–2), p. 75.
13 Février (VIII–2), p. 85; Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 104 note 1.
14 See Historia Augusta (V–5), III, pp. 135f., 193f., but nothing is known of the various authors to whom the biographies are attributed: see Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, compiled by Sir Paul Harvey (Oxford 1984), p. 210.
15 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, pp. 135–43 for ‘Trebellius Pollio’s’ description of Zenobia.
16 Gibbon (I–9), I, p. 302 and note 62; Boccaccio (I–19), p. 226; Jonson (I–2).
17 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 109, for theory of Zenobia’s conspiracy; Février (VIII–2), p. 90 believes in the possibility of Zenobia’s guilt only because Herodianus’ death helped her; a modern Arab writer, Moustapha Tlass (VIII–2), describes the accusations as ‘gratuitous’, since there is no proof of her complicity; Abbott, ‘Queens’ (VIII–6), p. 13 for Roman guilt.
18 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 135; Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. XII (Cambridge 1939), p. 302.
19 Février, Religion (VIII–3), p. 241; Cambridge Ancient History (VIII–18), XII, p. 302.
20 Février (VIII–2), pp. 113–14; Cambridge Ancient History (VIII–18), XII, p. 302.
21 Février (VIII–2), p. 103.
22 Mommsen, Theodor, The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian, Vol. II (1909), pp. 106–7 note 5.
23 Zosimus (VIII–12), p. 29.
24 Zosimus (VIII–12), pp. 25f.
25 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, pp. 243–4; Zosimus (VIII–12), p. 25.
26 Zosimus (VIII–12), p. 27; although the exchanges may well, of course, be fictional.
27 Cambridge Ancient History (VIII–18), XII, p. 306.
28 Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 137.
29 Zosimus (VIII–12), p. 29; Historia Augusta (V–5), III, p. 249.
30 Gibbon (I–9), I, pp. 311–12; Historia Augusta (V–5), III, pp. 141, 259; Cambridge Ancient History (VIII–18), XII, p. 305 note 1: ‘Zosimus should be rejected’.
31 Perceval, A. P. Caussin de, Essai sur l’histoire des Arabes avant l’Islamisme, pendant l’époque de Mahomet …, Vol. II (Paris 1897), pp. 30 note 4, 192–8; Abbott, ‘Queens’ (VIII–6), p. 13.
32 Mommsen (VIII–22), p. 110; Gibbon (I–9), I, p. 308.
33 See Tlass (VIII–2), p. 169 note 1 for another Queen Al-Zabba, part of the royal family of Al-Hyra, sometimes confused with Zenobia.
34 Zénobie by Assi and Mansour Al-Rahbani, cit. Tlass (VIII–2), pp. 254–60.
35 Zenobia: A Tragedy, ‘As it is performed at the Theatre Royal in Drury-Lane. By the Author of the Orphan of China [Arthur Murphy]’ (1768).
CHAPTER NINE: Matilda, Daughter of Peter
1 The ‘Epistolae Vagantes’ of Pope Gregory VII, edited and translated by H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 1972), p. 13.
2 Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 115.
3 Cit. Briey, Comte Renaud de, Mathilde, Duchesse de Toscane, Comtesse de Briey, Fondatrice de l’Abbaye d’Orval (1046–1115): Une Jeanne d’Arc Italienne (Brussels 1934), p. 50.
4 See Overmann, A., Gräfin Mathilde von Tuscien (Innsbruck 1895) for Regesta of her life pp. 123–90; also Tondelli, Leone, Matilda di Canossa – profile storico (3rd edn Reggio 1969); Duff (I–21), for biographical details.
5 Vedriani and Paluda, cit. Duff (I–21), p. 77; Tondelli (IX–4), pp. 30–1.
6 Huddy (V–5), p. 104.
7 See Colucci, G., Un nuovo poema latina dello IX secolo (Rome 1895), pp. 132–3.
8 Villani, Giovanni, Istorie Fiorentine, Vol. I (Milan 1802), pp. 201f.
9 Tondelli (IX–4), pp. 5, 144–5; Schevill, Ferdinand, History of Florence from the Founding of the City through the Renaissance (New York 1961), p. 54.
10 Erra, C. A., Memorie storico-critiche della gran contessa Matilda (Rome 1768), p. xiii.
11 Dante, De Monarchia, translated by P. H. Wicksteed, Book III (1896), pp. 277–8.
12 Cit. Duff (I–21), p. 91.
13 Tondelli (IX–4), pp. 30–1.
14 Cit. Duff (I–21), p. 127.
15 Cit. Briey (IX–3), p. 53.
16 See Gregory VII, Epistolae (IX–I) passim and biographies of Matilda, esp. Briey (IX–3), Duff (I–21) and Tondelli (IX–4).
17 Briey (IX–3), p. 56.
18 Donizo’s Vita Comitissae Mathildis – in two books of Latin verse – is the principal source for events at Canossa (1734) BL:12 f.6; see also the latest Italian translation by G. Marzi and V. Bellocchi (Modena 1970).
19 Gregory VII’S letter in Duff (I–21), Appendix D pp. 290–1.
20 Donizo, 1, 2, v. 203 cit. Briey (IX–3), p. 127.
21 Cit. Briey (IX–3), p. 151.
22 Schenetti, Matteo, ‘La vittoria de Matilde di Canossa su Arrigo IV’, Studi Matildici, Reggio 7–9 ottobre 1972 (Modena 1978), pp. 238–9.
23 Cit. Duff (I–21), p. 204.
24 Schevill (IX–9), pp. 58f.
25 See Rough, Robert H., The Reformist Illuminations in the Gospels of Matilda Countess of Tuscany: A Study in the Art of the Age of Gregory VII (The Hague 1973).
26 Inscriptions given in Duff (I–21), pp. 275–6.
27 Cit. Stephan, Rt. Hon. Sir James, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, Vol. I (1907), pp. 35f.
28 The Vision of Purgatory and Paradise by Dante Alighieri, translated by Rev. H. F. Cary (1893), Cantos XXVIII, XIX, XXXI and XXXII, and p. 120 note 1. Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, translated by Edward Fairfax, The Carisbrooke Library, Vol. VII (1890), Book XVII, p. 352.
29 Nencioni, G., Matilde di Canosse (Milan 1937), p. 190.
30 Tondelli (IX–4), Preface.
CHAPTER TEN: England’s Domina
1 For the Empress Maud see Dictionary of National Biography entry by Kate Norgate (1908–9); Onslow, the Earl of, The Empress Maud (1939) and Pain, Nesta, Empress Matilda: Uncrowned Queen of England (1978); for the period generally, Chibnall, Marjorie, Anglo-Norman England, 1066–1166 (Oxf
ord 1986) is the principal source.
2 DNB (X–I).
3 The Works of Gildas, in Six Old English Chronicles, edited by J. A. Giles (1878), p. 301.
4 See Dudley and Webster (I–3), p. 114.
5 Ruskin, Mornings in Florence, cit. Purdie, Edna, The Story of Judith in German and English Literature (Paris 1927).
6 William of Malmesbury, The History of the Kings of England …, Vol. III, Part 1 (The Church Historians of England 1854), p. 109.
7 Judith, edited by B. J. Timmer (1966), p. 7.
8 Anglo-Saxon Poetry, selected and translated by Professor R. K. Gordon (revised edn 1954), pp. 320–6.
9 See Chibnall (X–I), pp. 83–5.
10 Cit. Chibnall (X–I), p. 67 note 33.
11 The Idea of a perfect Princesse, in The Life of St Margaret Queen of Scotland. With Elogiums on her children David and Mathilda Queen of England. Now englished (Paris 1661).
12 Chibnall (X–I), p. 68.
13 The Historia Novella by William of Malmesbury, edited by K. R. Potter (1955), pp. 3–5.
14 See Gillingham, John, The Angevin Empire (1984 pbk), p. 9 for the view that Henry had Geoffrey in mind as his successor at the time of the betrothal; Chibnall (X–I), p. 85: ‘no reliable evidence that he ever changed his mind about his heir’.
15 Cit. Strickland, Agnes, Lives of the Queens of England, Vol. I (reprint 1972), p. 203.
16 Gillingham (X–14), pp. 10–11.
17 Gesta Stephani, edited and translated from the Latin by K. R. Potter, with a new Introduction and Notes by R. H. C. Davis (Oxford 1976), p. 5; William of Malmesbury (X–6), III, Part I, p. 389.
18 Fell, Christine, Clark, Cecily and Williams, Elizabeth, Women in Anglo-Saxon England and the Impact of 1066 (1984), p. 170.
19 Strickland (X–15), p. 1 where the quotations are given in Latin, slightly mixed up.
20 Geoffrey of Monmouth, Histories of the Kings of Britain, translated by Sebastian Evans, introduction by Lucy Anne Paton (1934), p. 34.
21 See Reilly, Bernard F., The Kingdom of León-Castilla under Queen Urraca 1109–1126 (Princeton, New Jersey 1982), especially Ch. 12, pp. 352f.
22 DNB (X–I); Chibnall (X–I), p. 94 note 103.