41 Colonists and Indians’ mingled lives: Calloway 1997:1–8, 184–94 (“described,” 185); Johansen 1987:40–42 (Franklin); Jefferson 1859 (“Peaches, etc.,” 6:149)
42 Indian freedoms: Josephy ed. 1993:29; Delâge 1992; Venables 1992 (“Every man,” 235); Weatherford 1988:157–61; Jaenen 1976:29–31; Colden 1747:100 (“such absolute”).
43 Dislike of Indian liberties: Jaenen 1976:88–92 (Perrot, Hennepin, Jesuit); see also, Charlevoix 1744: vol.3, 321–22.
44 Social equality: Delâge 1992; Brandon 1986:81–95 (editions, translations); Montaigne 1991:233 (“their houses”); Charlevoix 1744:vol.3, 308, 341–42; Lahontan 1703:vol.2, 8 (“among them”).
45 Attractiveness of native lives: Axtell 1975 (“When an Indian child,” 57); Salisbury 1982: 128–33 (Pilgrims dismayed by number of runaways); Wilson 1999:67 (fleeing Jamestown). Axtell’s conclusions were sharply critiqued in Vaughan and Richter 1980; Axtell’s response (1981:351) was convincing, at least to me. See also Calloway 1986; Treckel and Axtell 1976.
46 Attempt to suppress ideas of liberty: Jaenen 1976:95 (all quotes).
47 Adaptive changes: Axtell 1981a (“Enemy Indians,” 302; “linked to America,” 304).
48 Scoffing historians: Taylor 2005 (“coercive colonists”—he was reviewing the first edition of this book); Jennings 1996:86.
49 Winthrop’s hopes: Winthrop 1838 (“in submission,” 31); Calloway 1997:194 (“divinely ordained”).
50 Indian slavery and Mason-Dixon line: Snyder 2010; Taylor 2005 (“catch runaways”); Gallay 2002; Laubrich 1913.
Appendixes
1 “I abhor”: Quoted at http://www.russellmeans.com/russell.html.
2 Insulting names: This is a separate issue from the use of Indian references on geographical features and U.S. sports teams, some of which have long annoyed Indians. Various efforts have been made to ban the use of “squaw,” for example, as in Squaw Valley, home of a big ski resort in California, on the grounds that the word is a vulgar term for the vagina used to demean native women. Linguistically speaking, this is incorrect—the word in the past was a perfectly ordinary Algonkian word meaning “woman.” But that doesn’t mean that it should be used today. Similar uses of specific terms for the women of an ethnic group are rarely encountered in other contexts—one can’t imagine a resort called Jewess or Negress Valley. Redskin, as in the Washington Redskins, the football team of the U.S. capital, also seems unhappily anachronistic. According to the team, the name is intended to celebrate Indians’ warrior spirit, a good quality, and is therefore not derogatory. But it seems like calling a dance troupe the New York Pickaninnies and saying the name is intended to extol African-Americans’ innate sense of rhythm, a good quality.
3 “snowshoe,” “people who”: Goddard 1984; Mailhot 1978.
4 Crosby on civilization: Crosby 2002:71. See also, Wright 2005:32–33.
5 “ ‘Tribe’ and ‘chiefdom’ ”: Kehoe 2002:245.
6 Khipu: For a brief overview, see Mann 2003.
7 “resembles a mop”: Joseph 1992:28.
8 Governor consults khipu: Collapiña, Supno et al. 1921.
9 Khipu are banned: Urton 2003:22, 49.
10 Locke and Mead on khipu: Mead 1923 (“the mystery”, n.p.). Locke (1923:32) shared Mead’s view: “The evidence is intrinsically against the supposition that the quipu was a conventional scheme of writing” (italics in original). For another early attempt at decipherment, see Nordenskiöld 1979.
11 “Inka had no writing”: Fagan 1991:50.
12 Aschers’ work: Interview, R. Ascher (“clearly non-numerical”); Ascher and Ascher 1997:87 (“rapidly developing”).
13 Urton and khipu writing: Urton 2003.
14 Breakdown of khipu meaning units: Urton 2003: chaps. 2–5 (“system of coding information … binary code,” 1; comparison with Sumer, Maya, Egypt,117–18).
15 Khipu placename deciphered: Urton and Brezine 2005.
16 Miccinelli documents: Laurencich-Minelli 2001; Laurencich-Minelli et al. 1998, 1995; Zoppi 2000.
17 Tentative decipherment: Urton 2001.
18 Charles VIII and European syphilis epidemic: Baker and Armelagos 1988:708.
19 “lyen in fire”: Quoted in Crosby 2003:125–26.
20 Darwinian predictions about diseases: Ewald 1996: chap. 3. More precisely, nonvectorborne microorganisms evolve toward moderate malignity.
21 Díaz and Las Casas: Williams, Rice, and Lacayo 1927:690 (“origin”). My thanks to June Kinoshita for helping me obtain this article. On the origin of syphilis, Las Casas was unequivocal: “From the beginning, two things did and do afflict the Spanish on this island [Hispaniola]: the first is the sickness of the bubas [pustules], which in Italy is called the French disease. And I know for the truth that it came from this island or from when the first Indians came here, when Admiral Christopher Columbus returned with the news of the discovery of the Indies, which I saw in Seville, and they were stuck rotting in Spain, infecting the air or some other route, or else there were some Spanish with the disease among the first returnees to Castille.” Las Casas also says the epidemic began during the war in Naples (Las Casas 1992 [vol. 6]:361–62).
22 Recent syphilis findings: Rothschild and Rothschild 2000 (Colorado); 1996 (U.S. and Ecuador); Rothschild et al. 2000b (Caribbean). See also, Rogan and Lentz 1994, cited in Arriaza 1995:78.
23 Evidence for early European syphilis: E.g., Pearson 1924 (suggesting that Bruce’s recently excavated skeleton and deathmask support a diagnosis of syphilis, rather than leprosy); Power 1992 (I am grateful to Robert Crease for making it possible for me to obtain this source); Stirland 1995:109–15. News reports indicate that other such skeletons exist, too, though some have not yet appeared in the scholarly literature (e.g., Studd 2001; Barr 2000). In the past, though, few of “the numerous cases of pre-Columbian Old World syphilis … have withstood reexamination” (Baker and Armelagos 1988:710).
24 Universal presence of syphilis: Hudson 1965a, 1965b.
25 Confusion with Hansen’s disease: Baker and Armelagos 1988:706–07.
26 Historians’ motives: Crosby, “Preface to the 2003 Edition,” in 2003b:xix.
27 2012 prediction: Houston and Stuart 1996:301 (“Long Count”); Gronemeyer and MacLeod 2010 (“Eight Katun,” 59); Restall and Solari 2011 (“The thirteenth,” 9–10).
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NH Natural History
NYT New York Times
PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
QI Quaternary International
QR Quaternary Research
QSR Quaternary Science Reviews
WA World Archaeology
WMQ William and Mary Quarterly
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