Mussolini, Benito, 18, 37, 38, 44
Nagasaki bombing (1945), 127–28
National Security Act (1947), 248–49, 251
National Security Council (NSC), 248, 249, 320, 360, 387n
National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68), 298–300, 317, 341
National Socialism (Nazism), 1, 5, 8, 73, 163
National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party), 74, 75
Navy Department, U.S., 137, 148, 199, 230, 248, 250
Nazi Germany, 2–3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 66, 88, 171, 172, 191, 299; anti- Semitism and persecution of Jews in, 72–73, 74, 80, 172, 173, 174, 176 (see also Holocaust); anti-Soviet propaganda of, 46, 54; Soviet Union compared to, 256, 257–59, 264, 312. See also Hitler, Adolf; World War II
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 170–71
Netherlands, 5, 192, 258, 275, 276
New Britain, 86
New Deal, 26, 51, 163, 220, 221, 346
New Guinea, 84, 86, 223
New Jersey Bell, 198
New York Times, 57–58, 245
Nicaragua, 366
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 211, 241
“Night of the Murdered Poets,” 356–57
Nitze, Paul, 185; NSC-68 and, 298–99
Nixon, Richard M., 196, 315, 316, 365, 367–69; elected to Congress, 221–22, 223; opening of relations with China and, 367–68; as vicepresidential candidate, 346
NKVD (Soviet secret police), 4, 82, 113
North Africa, 41, 230, 275, 277; Allied invasion of, 30, 34, 36, 38, 62
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 280, 281, 304, 321, 328, 352, 353; creation of, 192–93, 275–77, 301
North Korea, 296, 302–46, 349–55, 367; nature of Kim’s regime in, 304–6, 307–8; nuclear weapons sought by, 202, 254, 365; Soviet troops stationed in, 139, 159, 302–3. See also Korea; Korean War
North Vietnam, 308
Novikov, Nikolai, 215–17, 229–30
nuclear arms race, 155, 193, 216, 293; attempts at prevention of, 196–202, 295; beginning of, 130–33; Eisenhower’s urging of end to, 351; H-bomb development and, 293–96; lack of advantage provided by expanded arsenals in, 195–96; possible alternative to, 296–97. See also atomic weapons
Office of Strategic Ser vices (OSS), 141
oil, 157, 174, 175–76
Okinawa, 87, 139, 303
O’Neill, Thomas “Tip,” 223
One World (Willkie), 40
Operation Borodino, 122
Operation Unthinkable, 109
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 107, 120, 130, 198, 199–200, 243, 294
Orwell, George, 271
Ottoman Empire, 172, 174
Oumansky, Constantine, 29
Outer Mongolia, 160
Oxenstierna, Count, 363
pacificism, 3, 18
Pacific War, 3, 4–5, 8–9, 36, 38, 39, 46, 49, 55, 57, 59, 83–94, 95, 107, 110, 118–19, 169, 225, 358; air raids on Japanese cities in, 85, 88–89, 127; atomic bombings of Japan in, 4, 7, 119, 120, 121, 125–29, 130–31, 197, 343; China’s role in, 89–94, 284; defense of home islands in, 87; early Allied defeats in, 83–84; ending of, 125–29; Indochina and, 141–42; Japanese surrender ceremony in, 8–9, 135; Johnson’s participation in, 223; Kim Il Sung’s experiences in, 304–5; MacArthur’s performance in, 84–85, 318; Pacific Island campaigns in, 86–87, 93, 129; Pearl Harbor attack in, 29, 77, 88, 96, 176, 257; possible invasion of Japanese home islands in, 39, 93, 118–19, 127, 128, 226; Soviet entry into, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 101, 113, 115, 118–19, 135, 226, 284; Tojo as leading villain in, 87–88; unsuccessful treaty negotiations and, 133–36, 153–54; U.S.–Japan peace agreement and, 301–2, 309, 328, 337, 339, 355
Pakistan, 170, 171, 296, 365
Palaus, 86
Palestine, 172–78, 230; agreements of early twentieth century on, 172–73, 174; Jewish refuge in Germany as alternative to, 173–74; Nazi persecution of Jews and, 172, 173, 174, 176; partitioned into Arab and Jewish states, 177–78; peacekeeping forces in, 176; Truman’s sympathy for Jewish interests in, 174–78, 269–70
Palestinians, continuing Israeli conflict with, 365
Paris conference (1949), 276, 280–81
Patton, George C., 81, 84
peaceful coexistence, 355
peace movements, 3, 18, 279
Pearl Harbor attack (1941), 29, 77, 88, 96, 176, 257
Pearson, Drew, 188
Pendergast, Tom, 115
percentages agreement, 22, 53, 229
Perkins, Frances, 27, 48–49
Pétain, Henri Philippe, 41
Philippines, 84, 85, 303, 318
Plato, 242, 370
Point Four, 275
Poland, 3, 5, 27, 174, 257; demise of resistance fighters in, 51, 54; German conquest of, 19, 20, 75; postwar fate of, 4, 21, 40, 45, 51, 52–53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 98, 100, 107, 108, 113, 116; pro-Communist government installed in, 101; Soviet execution of officers in, 4, 39, 48; Soviet seizure of eastern portions of, 27, 39, 46; in UN, 103
Politburo, 4, 150, 151, 153, 183–84, 188, 213, 261, 268, 274–75, 357, 364
Potsdam conference (1945), 69, 107–18, 125, 126, 133, 141, 149, 158, 343; appeasement myth and, 225–26; Churchill and Truman’s meeting before, 109, 111–12; circumstances leading to, 107–9; first successful atomic test and, 119–24; Soviet power on display at, 113–14; toppling of Churchill government during, 116–18; Truman as chairman at, 112; Truman’s entourage at, 110–11; Truman’s rapport with Stalin at, 114–16
Prague, Soviet advance on, 81, 82
Pravda, 207, 254
presidential election of 1944, 50–51, 70–71
presidential election of 1948, 147, 175, 176, 177, 221, 228, 265–70, 273
presidential election of 1952, 346–49; Eisenhower’s embrace of McCarthy in, 348–49; Korean War and, 194, 313, 346, 348–49; Nixon’s staunch anticommunism in, 346
presidential election of 1964, 195
Progressive Party, 268, 269
psychological warfare, 317
Pyle, Ernie, 5
Quebec conference (1943), 86
Quebec conference (1944), 23, 51
race discrimination, 219, 266–67
Rankin, John, 82
“Rape of Nanking,” 3–4
Reagan, Ronald, 298, 365–66
Republic, The (Plato), 242
Republican Party, 26, 157, 231, 260, 268, 269, 287, 291, 296, 313, 318, 323, 334, 350, 352; electoral politics and, 51, 163, 195, 220, 221–22, 226, 228, 234, 266, 292, 346–49
Rhee, Syngman, 302, 304, 306–9, 310, 311, 336, 349, 364; attacks on North Korean forces initiated by, 308–9; background and education of, 306–7; early political career of, 307; repressive regime of, 307, 308–9; truce opposed by, 352–53
Ridgway, Matthew, 328, 329, 343
Robertson, Walter S., 165–66
Romania, 116
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 67, 92, 110, 111, 156
Roosevelt, Elliott, 48
Roosevelt, Franklin, 1, 8, 24–30, 35, 36, 70, 103, 108, 110–11, 112, 149, 156, 162, 163, 215, 217, 221, 265, 368; Acheson’s conflict with, 272–73; anti-Communist attack on, 225–26; atomic weapons and, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 68–69, 121, 123, 128, 197; boyhood and education of, 24–25; China and, 89–94, 142, 143, 144, 159, 168; conduct of war in Europe and, 28–30, 36–41, 44, 45–46, 51, 54, 64–65, 81; death of, 66–67, 68–69, 71, 72, 100, 216; de Gaulle’s relations with, 41–42; deteriorating health of, 50–51, 58, 59–60, 68; early career and rise to power of, 25–26; fourth presidential term of, 50–51; Indochina and, 43, 140; MacArthur’s conflict with, 85; manipulation of public opinion by, 227; Pacific War and, 84, 85, 113, 125, 128; personal nature of, 24–25, 34, 69, 272–73; planning of postwar arrangements and, 15–16, 23–24, 40–52, 54–60, 64–67, 68–69, 71, 81–82, 90, 93–94, 96–100, 118, 129–30, 142, 225–26; poliomyelitis and disability of, 25–26, 41, 50; Soviet threat as viewed by, 24, 26–28; Stalin’s relationship with, 45, 48–49, 58, 62, 6
7, 102–3, 104, 217, 336; Truman’s anxiety about assuming place of, 109–10; Truman’s dealings with, 68–69; UN founding and, 46, 49, 51, 52, 96–100
Roosevelt, Theodore, 25, 26
Rosenman, Sam, 60
Ross, Charlie, 111
Rumania, 22, 155, 257
Rusk, Dean, 324
Russia: Bolshevik revolution in, 181; civil war between Red and White Russians in, 18, 32, 108. See also Soviet Union; Stalin, Joseph
Russian Orthodox Church, 47
Rwanda, 365
Saddam Hussein, 366, 369
Saipan, 88
Sakhalin, 93
San Francisco conference (1945), 64, 97–105
Senate, U.S., 156, 235, 260, 265; Acheson’s confirmation hearings in, 274–75; MacArthur’s removal and, 331, 335–36; McCarthyism and, 290–93
September 11, 2001, attacks, 196
Seventh Fleet, 311, 330, 337, 350
Siberia, 320, 344
Sicily, Allied attack on, 37–38, 44
Singapore, 83–84
Sinkiang, 160
Sino-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1945), 160, 164
Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance (1950), 288–89, 315
Smith, Al, 25
Smith, Walter Bedell, 184, 255
Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 83
Solarz, Stephen J., 306
Solomon Islands, 84, 86
“Sources of Soviet Conduct, The” (Kennan), 244–48
South Africa, Boer War in, 17, 367
Southeast Asia. See Indochina
South Korea, 302–46, 330, 349–55, 354; divisive factionalism in, 307; Hodge’s administration of, 139; nature of Rhee’s regime in, 306–8; U.S. military presence in, 302–3; U.S. mutual defense treaty with, 352. See also Korea; Korean War
Soviet Union, 3, 4, 8, 227, 317, 329, 365, 370; AEC deliberations and, 201–2; antireligion policy in, 27, 47; argument for all-out mobilization just short of war against (NSC-68), 298–300; atomic weapons program of, 122, 131, 133, 182, 187–88, 212, 243, 277–79, 294–98, 309, 313, 314–15, 322; Berlin blockaded by (1948), 259–61, 263, 264, 267, 271, 276, 279, 280, 300, 301; British alliance with, 19, 21; British plan of attack against, 109; Byrnes’s advocacy of compromise with, 149; China and, 93, 142, 143, 144, 159–60, 161, 163–65, 168, 236, 285, 286, 287, 288–89, 310, 315, 322, 368; Churchill’s speeches on threat posed by, 203–8, 211–13, 218; collapse collapse of communism in, 106; concern over “alien influences” in, 180, 181, 186–87, 215, 240; containment of, as U.S. policy goal, 244–48 (see also containment policy); Czech coup and, 256–57, 268; Dardanelles and, 158; devastation in, 62, 95, 105, 243; doctors’ plot alleged in, 356, 357; Eastern Europe and (see Eastern Europe); elimination of military chiefs in, 181; entry of, into war against Japan, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 101, 113, 115, 118–19, 135, 226, 284; ethnic minorities repressed in, 54; European defensive alliances against, 192–93, 255, 258, 259, 260, 275–77 (see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization); famines in, 214; German resurgence feared by, 123, 184, 216, 238, 246, 260, 261, 276, 277, 281; Germany’s postwar arrangements and, 55, 56, 57, 59, 116, 235, 237–38, 253–55, 259–61, 280–81; Greek Communist uprising and, 229–33; H-bomb and, 293–94; information about atomic weapons withheld from, 23–24, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 121, 122–24, 197; Iranian oil fields and, 157; Kennan’s February 1946 “Long Telegram” on, 190–92, 216; Kennan’s May 1945 assessment of, 181, 189–90; Kennan’s X article on, 244–48; Korean War and, 302–6, 309–11, 312, 314–15, 317, 320–21, 324, 325, 326–27, 328, 337, 338–39, 342, 343–44, 345, 349, 355, 361; living standards in, 63, 180, 181, 188, 240; Marshall Plan and, 239, 240, 241–42; Middle East and, 175, 176, 178, 196; military buildup in, 105–6, 189; Nazi Germany analogies and, 256, 257–59, 264, 276, 312; North Korea occupied by, 139; Novikov’s cable on U.S. threat to, 215–17; participation in international financial institutions refused by, 190; postwar dangers as perceived by, 183–85, 241–44; postwar reconstruction in, 54, 62, 101, 138, 179–80, 188, 214; prisoners of war from, 63, 180, 340; propaganda of, 211, 251, 254, 279–80, 281; public opinion polls in, 82–83; Roosevelt’s views on threat posed by, 24, 26–28; superior ground forces of, 296; unprepared to begin offensive war against West, 243, 258, 276, 312; U.S. lend-lease shipments to, 104, 182; U.S. military advantage over, 52, 124, 131, 199–200, 280, 366; U.S. planning for all-out war against, 252; U.S. public opinion on, 82, 187, 188, 206, 218, 257, 338–39; U.S. trade with, 26, 27, 28; Vietnamese independence movement and, 359, 361, 362. See also Stalin, Joseph; World War II
Spaatz, Carl, 252
Spain, fascism in, 236
Spanish Civil War (1936–39), 3, 18–19
Speer, Albert, 72
spheres of influence, 57, 216; percentages agreement and, 22, 53, 229
Stalin, Joseph, 4, 9, 10, 21, 31–41, 149–54, 179–87, 193, 211, 236, 250, 268, 292, 299, 343–44, 355–58, 363, 364, 365; absolute power within Soviet Union maintained by, 31–32, 47, 53–54, 62–63, 181, 185, 189, 213, 214–15, 261–62, 289, 311, 315, 355–58; appeasement myth of Yalta and Potsdam and, 225; atomic weapons and, 35–36, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 101, 121–24, 130–31, 182, 200, 278, 297–98; background of, 32; Berlin blockade and, 260–61, 263, 276, 279, 300, 301; China and, 93–94, 159–60, 163–64, 168, 285, 288–89; Churchill’s 1942 meeting with, 31, 34–36; Churchill’s Westminster College speech and, 207–8; conduct of war in Europe and, 29–30, 31, 34–41, 44, 45–46, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 62, 64–65, 81; Czech coup and, 256, 257; Dardanelles and, 158; death of, 192, 355, 357; de Gaulle’s evaluation of, 63; ending of Pacific War and, 125, 128, 130–31; entry into war against Japan and, 39, 46, 49, 59, 62, 93–94, 113, 115, 118–19; exemplary public demeanor of, 115; February 9, 1946, speech of, 182–86, 198–99, 202–3; foreign policy intentions of, at close of war, 149–50; future dangers expounded by, 183–87, 202–3; Greek Communist uprising and, 229, 232, 234–35; heart attack and subsequent health problems of, 150, 261; Hitler analogies and, 256, 257–59, 264, 276, 280, 300, 312; Hitler’s nonaggression pact with, 19, 21, 27, 28, 47, 153, 311; ideological conflict between communism and capitalism and, 66, 117, 123–25, 181–87, 188–89, 203, 214, 215, 240; Jews distrusted by, 215, 356–57; Kennan’s evaluation of, 152–53; Korean War and, 309, 310, 311, 314–15, 321, 326–27, 345, 355, 357; Marshall Plan and, 240; personal nature of, 31–34, 65, 115, 150–52, 203, 305–6, 356; planning of postwar arrangements and, 15–16, 21–24, 40, 43–49, 51–67, 71, 93–94, 97–104, 107–18, 123, 129–30, 135, 158, 225–26, 229, 238; postwar inspiration of masses and, 179–84; rise to power of, 32; Roosevelt’s death and, 67, 68, 100; Roosevelt’s relationship with, 45, 48–49, 58, 62, 67, 102–3, 104, 217, 336; ruthlessness of, 31–33, 150–52, 180, 261–62, 300, 315, 355–58; short stature of, 114; successors of, 261, 355; suspicious of allies, 35–36, 46–48, 55, 64–66, 67, 81, 107–8, 109, 111, 123–24; Tito’s conflict with, 262–63; toppling of Churchill government and, 117; Truman as viewed by, 69, 71, 101; Truman’s desire for personal meeting with, 102–3, 104; Truman’s rapport with, 114–16, 118; UN founding and, 46, 49, 51–52, 61, 62, 64, 97–100; U.S. reconstruction loan and, 54, 62, 101, 138; U.S. threat assessed by, 213–14
Stalingrad, battle of (1942–43), 34, 36, 44, 76, 181
State Department, U.S., 98, 101, 103, 137, 140–41, 143, 148, 230, 244, 257, 270, 281, 298; Amerasia investigation and, 224–25; atomic weapons and, 198, 199; Chambers–Hiss affair and, 268, 274; Chinese Communist victory and, 160–61, 226, 284–85, 286–87, 290, 346; Kennan’s cables to, 189–92, 216; Kennan’s retirement from, 282, 298; Korean War and, 315–16; McCarthyism and, 290–93
Stephenson, William, 213
Stettinius, Edward, 71, 102, 103, 110
Stevenson, Adlai, 346
Stilwell, Joseph W., 90–91, 92–93
Stimson, Henry, 29, 56–57, 119–20, 130, 131
Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S., 128
Strauss, Lewis,
293
strikes, 193, 219, 220
Stuart, John L., 286
Supreme Court, U.S., 86
Supreme Soviet of the USSR, 99
Taft, Robert, 176
Taiwan, 283, 287, 353; potential attack on Nationalists in, 287–88, 301, 304, 310, 311–12, 313, 330
Taiwan Strait, 330, 337, 350
Tarawa, 86
Taylor, A. J. P., 16
Taylor, Maxwell, 367
Tehran conference (1943), 34, 45–49, 343
Teller, Edward, 293
terrorism, 196, 296
Thieu, Nguyen Van, 308
Third World, 124, 275, 277, 317, 321, 360. See also specific nations
Time, 40, 70, 82, 90, 144, 186
Tito, Josip Broz, 45, 256, 262–63
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 6, 146, 226–27, 317
Tojo, Hideki, 87–88
Tokyo: air raids on, 85, 88–89, 127; arrivals of U.S. forces in, 135, 136
totalitarianism, 76
Treasury Department, U.S., 272–73
Trieste, 230, 262
Trotsky, Leon, 29, 32
Truman, Harry S., 68–71, 257, 364; accused of being soft on communism, 268, 269; anticommunism’s impact on standing of, 219–20, 224, 225–26; anxious about replacing Roosevelt, 109–10; apocalyptic rhetoric of, 231–35, 251–52, 255–56; approval ratings of, 193, 220–21, 266, 272, 313, 329, 334; assistance to developing countries and, 275; atomic weapons and, 68–69, 71, 101, 119–24, 126–33, 149, 155–57, 193, 198, 199, 200–201, 293–97, 329, 342; background and early career of, 70–71, 272; China and, 142, 143–44, 159–63, 283–90, 301; Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech and, 203–4, 207; Churchill’s personal rapport with, 110, 111–13; civil rights and, 266–67; congressional elections of 1946 and, 175, 266, 273; congressional opposition and, 228; containment policy of, 252, 265, 267, 332, 346, 351; Dardanelles and, 158; defense spending under, 277–78, 299, 317; domestic concerns and, 148–49, 193, 219–21, 264–70, 295–96, 312–13; elevated to presidency, 68–69, 71, 102, 109–10; foreign policy intentions of, at close of war, 146–49; Greek Communist uprising and, 230–33; H-bomb development and, 293–96; Indochina and, 140–41, 360; Israel recognized by, 269–70; Korean War and, 310, 311–14, 315–16, 318–19, 320, 322–25, 328–32, 337, 341, 348–49, 352, 354, 364, 369; MacArthur’s conflicts with, 318–19, 330–36, 342; MacArthur’s Wake Island meeting with, 323–24; manipulation of public opinion by, 227, 231–33; March 12, 1947, address of (Truman Doctrine address), 231–35; Marshall Plan and, 238–39, 255–56, 267; Marshall’s resignation and, 271–72; McCarthyism and, 292; Novikov’s cable on threat posed by, 215–17; NSC-68 and, 298–300; occupation of Japan and, 137; Pacific War and, 118–19, 125–29; Palestine issue and, 174–78, 269–70; personal meeting with Stalin sought by, 102–3, 104; physical appearance and demeanor of, 69–70; planning of postwar arrangements and, 71, 100–104, 107–18, 129–30, 135, 141, 155–56, 225–26; presidential election of 1948 and, 175, 176, 177, 221, 228, 265–70, 273; presidential election of 1952 and, 313; reorganization of defense establishment under, 248–51; Roosevelt’s dealings with, 68–69; Soviet A-test and, 278–79; Stalin and Soviets compared to Hitler and Nazis by, 258–59; Stalin’s assessment of threat posed by, 213; Stalin’s inflammatory rhetoric and, 185, 186, 187, 202; Stalin’s rapport with, 114–16, 118; toppling of Churchill government and, 117; tough responses of, toward Soviets, 100–101, 108, 120, 155–57; on travails of presidency, 217–18; UN founding, 100–103, 105; Wallace’s forced resignation and, 217, 227